THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


library 
Graduate  School  of  Business  Administration- 

Un'  --T-g.Uy  of  California 
Los  Angeles  24,  California 


THE 

PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

AND     THE 

RE-EMPLOYMENT    OF    THE    DISABLED 


The  Physiology  of 
INDUSTRIAL  ORGANISATION 


AND  THE 


Re-employment  of  the  Disabled 


PROFESSOR  JULES  AMAR 

DIRECTOR  OF  THE  LABORATORY  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  RESEARCH 
IN  THE  CONSERVATOIRE  DES  ARTS  ET  METIERS,   PARIS 


TRANSLATED  BY  BERNARD  MIALL 


EDITED  WITH    NOTES  AND  AN  INTRODUCTION 

BY 

PROFESSOR  A.  F.  STANLEY  KENT,  M.A.,  D.Sc.  OXON 


135  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK 

JWacmillan  Company 

1919 


PRINTED  BY 

THE  LONDON  AND  NORWICH  PRESS,   LIMITED 
LONDON  AND  NORWICH,   ENGLAND 


Bus.  Admin. 
Library 


T 

58 
A5C:    E 


AUTHOR'S    PREFACE 

To  assist  in  the  work  of  organising  labour  according  to  rational 
laws  ;  to  assign  to  each  man  his  true  function  in  the  social 
machine ;  to  enable  the  hale  man  and  the  war-cripple  to 
collaborate  in  the  economic  tasks  of  to-morrow  ;  to  formulate 
concisely  the  doctrine  of  the  maximum  utilisation  of  the 
physical  and  psychical  energies,  without  losing  sight  of  the 
moral  factor  :  these  are  the  motives  which  impelled  me  to 
write  this  book.  It  is  frankly  addressed  to  the  general  public, 
and  it  deals,  in  a  pedagogic  sense,  with  the  ordinary  avocations. 
Whether  in  the  matter  of  physical  education  and  hygiene, 
or  the  organisation  of  apprenticeship  and  labour,  or  that 
technical  re-education  whose  programme  we  have  had  to 
devise,  while  co-ordinating  the  efforts  made  to  realise  it, 
in  these  sorrowful  times  it  is  the  duty  of  each  one  of  us  actively 
to  participate.  I  have  briefly  stated  why  and  how. 

Further,  I  have  everywhere  laid  stress  upon  the  intimate 
connection  between  science  and  economic  wealth,  between 
method  and  technique  and  national  prosperity. 

In  the  same  spirit  I  have  elucidated  the  problems  of  pro- 
thesis,  for  France  and  England  might  place  themselves  at 
the  head  of  the  orthopaedic  industry  of  the  whole  world,  as 
of  many  another  industry.  The  condition  is  that  they  must 
eschew  routine,  a  factor  which  enervates  the  inventive  spirit 
of  the  race. 


720C62 


VI  AUTHOR  S     PREFACE 

My  own  doctrine  has  naturally  led  me  to  explain  and 
discuss  the  admirable  system  of  Taylor.  I  have  laid  stress 
upon  its  essential  merits,  while  correcting  it  where  it  appeared 
to  disregard  the  fundamental  laws  of  fatigue  and  the  con- 
servation of  human  energy.  All  our  activities,  indeed,  should 
be  properly  conditioned  physiologically,  or  serious  mis- 
calculations will  result.  They  are  in  effect  so  conditioned  by 
the  very  laws  of  nature.  But  men  persist  in  denying  the  fact, 
and  seek  refuge  in  abstractions. 

In  connection  with  these  fundamental  problems,  therefore, 
it  was  necessary  to  enlighten  the  reader  by  means  of  proofs 
and  data  ready  to  hand.  Thanks  to  a  profusion  of  original 
and  extremely  clear  illustrations,  the  comprehension  of  the 
text  is  greatly  facilitated.  I  take  this  opportunity  of  thanking 
my  publishers  for  all  the  trouble  they  have  taken  in  this 
respect.  For  the  benefit  of  the  reader,  too,  as  much  as  to 
afford  me  proof  of  a  goodwill  already  put  to  the  test, 
M.  H.  Le  Chatelier,  whose  name  is  eloquent  of  a  methodical 
social  activity,  has  written  a  Preface  for  the  French  edition 
of  this  volume,  while  the  Introduction  to  the  English  edition 
has  been  contributed  by  Prot.  A.  F.  Stanley  Kent,  who  has 
also  acted  as  editor. 

Whether  by  author  or  publishers,  the  data  have  been  inter- 
preted accurately  and  sincerely.  A  book  which  professes 
to  teach  anything  should  be,  as  it  were,  an  act  of  conscience. 
I  trust  this  may  be  such  a  book. 


PREFACE    TO    FRENCH   EDITION 

IN  his  "  Principles  of  the  Scientific  Organisation  of  Labour  " 
(p.  67)  F.  Taylor  complains  that  the  experiments  of  physiolo- 
gists and  engineers  have  hitherto  afforded  no  indications  as 
to  the  endurance  of  the  human  being.  "  The  results  of  these 
investigations,"  he  says,  "  have  been  so  negligible  that  it 
has  been  impossible  to  deduce  therefrom  a  law  of  any  value." 
The  object  of  M.  Amar's  present  volume  is  precisely  to  fill  this 
hiatus,  and  to  show  how  the  experimental  methods  of  the 
physiologists  will  enable  us,  in  future,  to  grapple  with  the 
problem  of  human  fatigue  and  human  activity.  This  problem 
is  of  the  highest  importance  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
organisation  of  labour  in  factory  and  workshop. 

Before  I  fully  express  my  appreciation  of  this  volume,  I 
should  like  to  make  a  few  remarks  as  to  the  author's  criticisms 
of  Taylor's  work.  He  insists,  perhaps  more  than  is  reasonable, 
on  the  insufficiency  of  Taylor's  methods  of  estimating  fatigue 
in  manual  workers.  This  reproach  ought,  in  all  fairness,  to  be 
addressed  to  the  physiologists.  It  is  not  the  business  of  the 
engineer  to  invent  these  new  methods  of  measurement ;  he 
can  only  employ  those  which  are  already  extant.  Thus 
Taylor  made  use  of  chemical  analysis,  the  measurement  of 
temperatures,  and  the  measurement  of  the  efforts  exerted 
upon  tools  and  implements.  He  would,  similarly,  have 
employed  methods  of  estimating  human  fatigue,  if  such 


Viii  PREFACE    TO    THE    FRENCH    EDITION 

methods  had  existed.  He  complains,  with  perfect  justice, 
that  he  found  nothing  to  the  point  in  the  works  of  his  pre- 
decessors. Let  us  hope  that  this  volume  of  M.  Amar's  will 
help  to  remove  this  difficulty. 

The  reproach  that  Taylor  neglected  the  part  played  by  the 
will  in  the  production  of  labour  is,  in  my  opinion,  equally 
unfounded.  The  example  of  Rachel,  which  is  cited  in  this 
connection,  is  completely  typical.  The  will  cannot  supply 
the  place  of  physical  strength  ;  it  merely  enables  a  man  to 
labour  in  excess  of  his  strength,  to  over-work  himself.  This 
was  certainly  the  case  with  Rachel,  who  died  at  thirty-seven. 
This  is  not  an  example  to  be  imitated.  The  scientific  organisa- 
tion of  labour,  as  conceived  by  Taylor,  aims  at  obtaining 
from  the  worker  the  maximum  of  work  which  he  can  normally 
accomplish,  but  it  does  not  urge  him  to  exceed  this  limit  by  an 
effort  of  the  will. 

These  reservations  apart,  I  am  delighted  to  call  attention 
to  the  profit  and  the  interest  to  be  derived  from  the  perusal 
of  M.  Amar's  work  on  the  physiological  organisation  of  labour. 
This  volume  is  not  intended  only  for  the  specialist,  the  physi- 
cian, the  physiologist,  or  the  engineer  ;  any  cultivated  reader 
will  take  pleasure  in  learning  something  of  the  many  con- 
temporary problems  here  considered  :  problems  of  the  measure- 
ment and  registration  of  muscular  or  nervous  fatigue  ;  of 
psycho-physiological  relations  ;  of  normal  alimentation  ;  of 
the  art  of  economical  labour,  whether  physical  or  intellectual ; 
of  handicrafts  and  apprenticeship  ;  of  the  re-education  of 
war-cripples  ;  of  orthopaedy,  etc. 

M.  Amar  describes  in  detail  the  methods  of  measurement 
employed  in  physiological  laboratories  for  the  evaluation 
of  work  done.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  numerous  investigations 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FRENCH    EDITION  IX 

will  be  undertaken  by  the  aid  of  these  methods,  which  admit 
of  extreme  precision,  and  owe  not  a  little  to  M.  Amar.  The 
problem  to  be  solved  is  in  reality  extremely  complex.  It  is 
not  enough  to  determine  the  degree  of  fatigue  occasioned  by  a 
given  task  in  order  to  decide  whether  the  task  in  question  does 
or  does  not  exceed  the  capacities  of  the  worker  who  is  the  sub- 
ject of  experiment.  All  serious  muscular  labour  necessarily 
involves  a  certain  amount  of  fatigue,  but  this  will  not  be 
in  any  way  harmful  if  the  periods  of  repose  intercalated  during 
labour  allow  the  human  machine  to  re-establish  itself  without 
permanent  deterioration.  A  steam-engine  cannot  work  with- 
out consuming  coal ;  but  there  is  no  trouble  as  long  as  it  is  fed 
sufficiently,  so  that  it  does  not  come  to  a  standstill.  Similarly, 
in  the  case  of  man,  the  consumption  of  energy  produces  no 
bad  results  provided  nourishment  and  sleep  suffice  to  make 
good  all  losses.  Fatigue,  far  from  being  injurious,  is  highly 
favourable  to  health.  A  peasant,  who  will  frequently  work 
sixteen  hours  a  day,  will  often  attain  an  age  of  eighty  years, 
while  a  small  shopkeeper  in  a  big  city,  who  does  not  always 
do  an  hour's  work  in  the  day,  will  hardly  reach  his  sixtieth 
year.  It  is  this  that  makes  the  study  of  overwork  so  difficult. 
The  man  who  never  fatigues  himself  does  not  live  long.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  man  who  experiences  fatigue  often  enjoys  a 
hale  old  age.  The  great  manufacturer  Solvay  furnishes  a 
remarkable  example  of  this  fact.  About  his  sixtieth  year  he 
began  to  indulge  in  Alpine  climbing,  regulating  the  speed  at 
which  he  climbed  so  as  to  maintain  the  rate  of  his  pulse  at  120 
beats  a  minute.  This  undoubtedly  means  great  fatigue,  and 
Solvay  to-day  bears  his  sixty-seven  years  lightly,  overtaxing 
himself  yet  further  by  intellectual  labours  which  are  so  severe 
that  they  often  result  in  loss  of  sleep.  It  is  true  that  not 


X  PREFACE    TO    THE    FRENCH    EDITION 

every  man  could  endure  such  a  regimen  ;  it  is  no  less  true 
that  the  question  of  harmful  over-exertion  is  an  extremely 
complex  problem,  which  will  demand  much  investigation 
before  it  is  completely  solved. 

The  employment  of  the  methods  of  measurement  recom- 
mended by  M.  Amar  will  assuredly  produce  an  immediate 
result  in  such  investigations  as  relate  to  the  re-education  of 
wounded  men  and  war-cripples.  The  numerous  examples 
which  he  gives  of  such  investigations  show  us  how  it  is  possible, 
by  methodical  experiment,  to  secure  a  rapid  reduction  of  the 
efforts  which  are  necessary  at  the  outset  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  a  task  for  which  one  has  had  no  training. 

The  systematic  evaluation  of  these  efforts  makes  it  possible 
very  greatly  to  shorten  the  period  of  re-education,  and  will 
in  a  great  measure  help  to  alleviate  the  hardships  caused  by 
the  war. 

This  particular  application  of  the  Taylorian  system  will 
therefore  be  productive  of  another  very  happy  result :  that  is, 
it  will  provide  employment  for  war-cripples.  One  of  the  most 
essential  points  of  this  system  is  to  replace  a  large  number  of 
manual  workers  in  workshop  and  factory  by  employees  whose 
office  it  is  to  investigate  the  best  methods  of  labour,  to  teach 
these  to  the  workers,  and  finally  to  establish  the  amount  of  the 
day's  task.  The  majority  of  these  functions  may,  for  the  most 
part,  very  usefully  be  entrusted  to  wounded  soldiers.  A 
personal  experience  of  manual  labour  is  indispensable  to  the 
proper  fulfilment  of  these  functions,  but  these  latter  do  not 
necessitate  the  personal  execution  of  the  particular  work  in 
hand.  Ex-artisans,  for  instance,  will  be  able  to  utilise  the 
experience  which  they  acquired  when  they  still  enjoyed 
the  full  use  of  all  their  limbs.  This  utilisation  of  crippled 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FRENCH    EDITION  XI 

working-men  has  been  tried,  with  abundant  success,  by 
M.  de  Freminville,  in  the  Penhoete  workshops,  at  Saint- 
Nazaire.  This  is  an  experiment  which  deserves  further 
development.  It  is  true  that  such  advisory  work  requires, 
in  addition  to  a  technical  knowledge  of  the  craft,  an  adequate 
amount  of  intelligence.  But  just  as  blind  men  find  that  their 
acoustic  sensibility  is  developed  by  the  concentration  of  their 
attention  upon  those  senses  which  remain  intact,  so  we  may 
count  upon  a  development  of  the  intellectual  faculties  in  men 
deprived  of  part  of  their  physical  activity.  By  the  very 
force  of  circumstances  they  will  direct  their  energies  into 
fresh  channels.  At  all  events,  the  more  intelligent  will  in 
this  manner  be  able  to  find  immediate  employment  for  their 
faculties. 

M.  Amar's  volume  touches  upon  a  very  large  number  of 
problems  which  possess  a  great  significance  in  respect  of  the 
future  of  the  belligerent  nations.  Let  us  hope  that  he  will 
have  many  readers,  who  will  not  fail  to  realise  the  extreme 
importance  of  these  questions. 

HENRY  LE  CHATELIER. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

AUTHOR'S  PREFACE vii 

PREFACE  by  M.  H.  Le  CHATELIER  to  the  FRENCH 

EDITION ix 

INTRODUCTION  by  PROFESSOR  A.  F.  STANLEY 

KENT  xxi 


CHAPTER    I 

HUMAN  LABOUR— ITS  HISTORY  AND  ITS  DOC- 
TRINES ;  Physical  Research ;  Coulomb ;  The 
Taylor  System  ;  Advantages  of  the  Taylor  System  ; 
Criticisms  of  the  Taylor  System ;  Physiological 
Research ;  Lavoisier  .  .  .  .  .  .  1-16 

CHAPTER    II 

THE  ORGANIC  FUNCTIONS  OF  MAN  ;  The  Diges- 
tive Function  ;  The  Respiratory  Function ;  The 
Circulation  ;  Functions  of  Relation — Movement ; 
The  Osseous  System  ;  The  Muscular  System  ;  The 
Nervous  System 17-39 

CHAPTER    III 

HUMAN  PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  ;  Psychical  or  Men- 
tal Activity  ;  Old  Age  ;  Human  Aptitudes — 
Physical ;  Human  Aptitudes  —  Psychical ;  The 
Personal  Equation ;  Psycho-Physiological  Rela- 
tions—Pleasure ;  Pain;  The  Psycho-Physical  Law; 
Conclusion 40-63 

CHAPTER    IV 

WORK  AND  FATIGUE;  The  Measurement  of  Mus- 
cular Activity ;  Measurement  of  Speed  or  Pace  ; 
The  Expenditure  of  Energy  ;  Fatigue  ;  The  Circula- 
tion of  the  Blood;  Respiration;  Neuro-muscular 
Energy ;  Biochemical  Indications  of  Fatigue  .  .  64-97 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   V 

THE  FACTORS  OF  LABOUR  ;  The  Laws  of  Chaveau  ; 
Internal  Factors  of  Work  :  Our  Food  ;  Hunger, 
Inanition  ;  Alimentary  Rations  ;  Observations,  and 
Particular  Cases  ;  What  to  Drink  ;  The  Effects  of 
Alcoholism ;  Physiological  Conditions ;  External 
Factors  of  Labour :  The  Atmospheric  Environ- 
ment ;  Clothing  ;  Entertainments — Amusements — 
Rest ;  Equipment  and  Labour  .... 


98-124 


CHAPTER   VI 

THE  ART  OF  LABOUR;  Physical  Activity;  The 
Handicrafts ;  Apprentices ;  The  Case  of  those 
incapacitated  from  Labour ;  Carrying  burdens  up- 
stairs ;  Walking  on  an  inclined  Plane  ;  Professional 
Cycling ;  Agricultural  Labour  ;  Physical  Training 
and  Functional  Re-education  ;  The  Principles  of 
Physical  Training ;  Factors  of  Physical  Training  ; 
Functional  Re-education — General  Laws  ;  Force 
and  Amplitude  ;  The  Technique  of  Physical  Train- 
ing and  Re-education ;  The  Cheirograph ;  The 
Dynamographic  Bulb  ;  The'  Arthrodynamometer  ; 
Attitudes  of  the  Body  ;  Locomotion — Gymnastics  ; 
Summary — Physical  Activity  .... 


125-167 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  ART  OF  LABOUR  (continued);  Intellectual 
Activity ;  Complexity  of  Intellectual  Work  ;  The 
Origin  of  Intellectual  Energy  ;  The  Organisation 
of  Intellectual  Work  ;  Applications  of  the  Principles 
of  Organisation  ....... 


168-182 


CHAPTER   VIII 

APPRENTICESHIP  ;  and  Re-apprenticeship  ;  the 
Present  Condition  of  Apprenticeship ;  Technical 
Schools ;  The  Organisation  of  the  Apprentice 
System  ;  The  Technique  of  Apprenticeship  ;  The 
Education  of  the  Movements ;  Mechanical  Con- 
siderations ;  The  Duration  of  Apprenticeship  ;  Social 
Science  and  Industry  .  .  .  .  ... 


183-202 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    IX 

LABOUR  ;  Italian  Labour  ;  Wages  ;  French  Labour  ; 
Native  Labour  ;  Technical  and  Social  Considera- 
tions—The Kabyles  ;  The  Life  of  the  Kabyles ; 
Anthropological  Data  ;  Physiological  Data — The 
Energy  of  the  Arab  ;  The  Diet  of  the  Arab  ; 
Climate  and  Acclimatisation  ;  The  Cost  of  Arab 
Labour 


xv 
PAGE 


203-226 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  RE-EDUCATION  OF  WAR-CRIPPLES—FUNC- 
TIONAL RE-EDUCATION;  The  Necessity  of 
employing  Wounded  Soldiers  ;  The  General  Principles 
of  Re-education ;  The  Functional  Re-education  of 
the  Wounded  ;  Results  ;  War-Cripples — The  Func- 
tional Value  of  the  Stumps  ;  The  Power  of  the 
Stumps  ;  Technical  Method  of  Measuring  the  Power 
of  the  Stumps  ;  Data  resulting  from  Measurements 
of  the  Power  of  Stumps  ;  Histo-Psychological  Modi- 
fication of  the  Stumps  ;  The  Re-education  and  the 
Organic  Condition  of  the  War-Cripples  . 


227-256 


CHAPTER   XI 

THE  RE-EDUCATION  OF  WAR  -  CRIPPLES  — 
SCIENTIFIC  PROTHESIS;  The  Utilisation  of 
Stumps  ;  Mechanical  Factors  ;  Application  of  Pro- 
thetic  Appliances  ;  Amputation  of  the  Thigh — 
The  "  Pestle  "  type  of  leg  ;  The  "  Artificial  Leg  "  ; 
Expert  Examination  of  an  Artificial  Leg ;  Femoral 
Amputations;  Amputations  of  the  Lower  Leg;  Double 
Amputations  ;  Prothesis  of  the  Upper  Limb  ;  Ampu- 
tation of  the  Upper  Arm  ;  The  Worker's  Arm  ; 
Amputations  near  the  Shoulder  and  Disarticulation  ; 
Amputation  of  the  Fore-arm  ;  Various  Appliances  ; 
Mechanical  Arms  ;  Employment  and  Qualities ; 
Other  Models  of  Articulated  Arms  ;  Functional 
Prothesis 


257-310 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE  RE-EDUCATION  OF  WAR-CRIPPLES—PRO- 
FESSIONAL RE-EDUCATION;  The  Education 
and  Evaluation  of  Efforts  ;  Education  of  the  Move- 
ment ;  Physiological  Education  ;  The  Adaptation  of 
the  Tools  Employed  ;  The  Advantages  of  Scientific 
Organisation — The  Physiological  Value  of  the  War- 
Cripple  ;  The  Output  of  Prothesis  ;  Simplicity  and 
Rapidity  of  Educational  Methods  ;  Schools  of  Pro- 
fessional Re-education ;  The  Organisation  of  a 
centre  of  Re-education  ;  Professional  Orientation  ; 
The  Time  Required  for  Re-education — Home  or 
Cottage  Industries ;  Finding  Employment ;  An 
Institute  for  the  Organisation  of  Labour  ;  Relief 
Work— The  Seriously  Wounded  ;  The  Physiological 
Education  of  the  Blind  ;  The  Work  of  the  Blind  ; 
General  Conclusions  .  .  .  311-358 


INDEX 


359 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  F.  W.  TAYLOR  (1856-1915) 6 

2.  SCHEME  OF  THE  TAYLOR  SYSTEM  OF  ORGANISATION      ...  7 

3.  CALORIMETRIC  CHAMBER,  BOSTON          ......  13 

4.  LAVOISIER  (1743-1794) 15 

5.  LAVOISIER'S  EXPERIMENT  UPON  SEGUIN        .....  16 

6.  PRINCIPAL  ORGANS  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY   .....  19 

7.  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM  ......  20 

8.  THE  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM           .......  26 

9.  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM        .....  27 

10.  GENERAL  PLAN  OF  THE  HUMAN  SKELETON            .          .  32 

11.  GENERAL  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY     .  35 

12.  PATHS  FOLLOWED  BY  NERVE-IMPULSES,  AND  NERVOUS  CONNECTIONS  37 

13.  DIGESTIVE  TYPE  OF  HUMANITY  (THOORIS)  .....  48 

14.  MUSCULAR  TYPE         . 48 

15.  RESPIRATORY  TYPE    .........  49 

16.  CEREBRAL  OR  NERVOUS  TYPE      .......  49 

17.  DIAGRAM  OF  CEREBRAL  LOCALISATIONS         .....  53 

18.  DEVICE  FOR  MEASURING  THE  PERSONAL  EQUATION        ...  54 

19.  DIAGRAM  OF  RECORDING  OR  GRAPHIC  DYNAMOMETER             .          .  67 

20.  RECORDING  CYLINDER  WITH  MAREY  RECORDING  DRUMS        .          .  68 

21.  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  EFFORTS  EXERTED  IN  FILING  METAL          .          .  68 

22.  FILE  WITH  DYNAMOGRAPHIC  ATTACHMENTS  .          .          .          .69 

23.  JOINTING-PLANE          .........  70 

24.  DYNAMOGRAPHIC  SPADE  (DETAILED  SECTION)        ....  71 

25.  GRAPHIC  RECORD  OF  THE  WORK  OF  A  GOOD  WORKMAN  USING  THE 

FILE 72 

26.  RESPIRATION  GAUGE  .........  74 

27.  TAKING  A  GRAPHIC  RECORD  OF  THE  PULSE          ....  78 

28.  CARDIOGRAPH  AND  PNEUMOGRAPH  IN  POSITION     .          .          .          .79 

29.  RHYTHM  OF  THE  HEART  DURING  WORK  (A  CASE  OF  FATIGUE)          .  80 

30.  GRAPHIC  RECORD  OF  THE  HEART  OF  A  YOUNG  GYMNAST      .          .  81 

31.  CARDIOGRAMS  DURING  REPOSE  AND  EXTREME  FATIGUE         .          .  82 

32.  RESPIRATORY  TRACINGS  TAKEN  BY  MEANS  OF  THE  PNEUMOGRAPH.  83 

33.  RESPIRATION  GUAGE  FITTED  FOR  MAKING  TONOGRAMS            .          .  84 

34.  TONOGRAMS 85 

35.  TRACINGS  OF  DEEP  RESPIRATION  DURING  RAPID  WORK         .          .  86 

36.  TRACINGS  TAKEN  DURING  QUICK  AND  HEAVY  LABOUR.          .          .  87 

37.  CURVE  OF  PULMONARY  VENTILATION             .....  88 
b                                                             xvii 


XV111  LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

38.  PNEUMOGRAMS    SHOWING     EXPIRATORY    ARREST    DURING     STATIC 

EFFORT 89 

39.  TONOGRAMS  TAKEN  DURING  STATIC  EFFORT           ....  90 

40.  CHEIROGRAPH  REGISTERING  THE  MUSCULAR  CONTRACTION  OF  FINGERS  91 

41.  CHEIROGRAMS  OF  FATIGUE 92 

42.  GENERAL  FORM  OF  CURVES  OF  ENDURANCE           ....  95 

43.  POSITION  OF  ARMS  ON  LIFTING  WHEELBARROW   .          .          .          .  100 

44.  TONOGRAMS  OF  FATIGUE     ........  102 

45.  AN  APPRENTICE  USING  THE  FILE-MEASUREMENT  OF  FATIGUE          .  126 

46.  ECONOMIC  ATTITUDE  OF  MAN  FILING  METAL         ....  127 

47.  GRAPHIC  RECORDS  OF  THE  WORK  OF  AN  APPRENTICE  FILING  METAL  129 

48.  A  SOLDIER  WORKING  WITH  THE  SELF-REGISTERING  JOINTING-PLANE  131 

49.  RECORDS  MADE  BY  A  JOINER'S  APPRENTICE          ....  132 

50.  STUDY  OF  WALKING  UPON  AN  INCLINED  PLANE  .          .          .136 

51.  ENERGY  PRODUCED  AT  VARIOUS  PERIODS  OF  LIFE         .          .          .  142 

52.  DIAGRAM  OF  ERGOMETRIC  CYCLE          ......  147 

53.  RE-EDUCATION  OF  STUMPS            .......  149 

54.  THE  CHEIROGRAPH      .........  152 

55.  BULB  DYNAMOMETER.          .          .          .          .          ...          .          .  154 

56.  TRACINGS  MADE  WITH  THE  BULB  DYNAMOMETER.          .          .          .  155 

57.  ELEVATION  OF  ARTHRODYNAMOMETER  .....  157 

58.  MANNER  OF  ADJUSTING  THE  ARTHRODYNAMOMETER       .          .          .  157 

59.  ERECT  POSITIONS  OF  THE  BODY.          ......  161 

60.  THE  FLEXED  WALK 163 

61.  GYMNASTIC  EXERCISES  WITH  DUMB-BELLS    .....  164 

62.  GYMNASTIC  EXERCISES  FOR  INCREASING  STRENGTH        .          .          .  165 

63.  DIAGRAMMATIC  EXPRESSION  OF  THE  EMOTIONS      ....  170 

64.  THE  STOCKING  TRADE  (18TH  CENTURY) 187 

65.  WORKSHOP  OF  A  NORMAN  PIN-MAKER           .....  187 

66.  CINEMATOGRAPHIC  PICTURES  OF  AN  APPRENTICE  FILING  METAL     .  195 

67.  TILLING  THE  SOIL  IN  THE  18TH  CENTURY    .....  208 

68.  TYPES  OF  NORTH  AFRICAN  NATIVES    ......  217 

69.  A  KABYLE,  AS  THE  SUBJECT  OF  AN  EXPERIMENT  WITH  THE  ERGO- 

METRIC  CYCLE 219 

70.  NORMAL  CHEIROGRAMS  OF  THE  FINGERS       .....  232 

71.  ADJUSTABLE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  CRUTCH  .....  233 

72.  INVESTIGATION  OF  FATIGUE  IN  A  SUBJECT  USING  CRUTCHES.          .  234 

73.  TRACINGS  MADE  BY  AN  INFIRM  SUBJECT  UNDERGOING  RE-EDUCATION  235 

74.  THE  SAME  AT  THE  END  OF  A  MONTH            .....  236 

75.  THE  SAME  AT  THE  END  OF  FIVE  WEEKS     .....  237 

76.  WORK  WITH  THE  FILE  DONE  BY  A  WOUNDED  SOLDIER  AT  THE  OUTSET 

OF  HIS  RE-EDUCATION     ........  238 

77.  RESULT  OF  THE  RE-EDUCATION  OF  COMPLETE  ANCHYLOSIS  OF  THE 

SHOULDER      ..........  239 

78.  EARLY  STAGES  OF  THE  RE-EDUCATION  OF  A  WOUNDED  SOLDIER   .  240 

79.  MEASURING  THE  POWER  OF  A  STUMP  (ARM)  BY  MEANS   OF  THE 

DYNAMOMETRICAL  SPLINT        .......  244 

80.  MEASURING    THE    POWER    OF    A    STUMP  (LEG)  BY  MEANS  OF  THE 

DYNAMOMETRICAL  SPLINT         .......  244 

81.  SENSORY  EDUCATION  OF  A  BLIND  MAN  WHO  HAS  SUFFERED  DOUBLE 

AMPUTATION            .....                                         .  249 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS  XIX 

FIG.  PAGE 

82.  EXAMINATION  OF  THE  ORGANIC  CONDITION  OF  A  WAR-CRIPPLE     .  252 

83.  CARDIOGRAMS  OF  A  WAR-CRIPPLE         ......  253 

84.  RESPIRATIONS  WHILE  RESTING,  WHILE  WORKING,  AND  AFTER  WORK- 

ING, IN  AN  EMPHYSEMATIC  SUBJECT          .....  254 

85.  "  PESTLE  "  TYPE  OF  LEG,  WITH  LOCKING-JOINT  ....  266 

86.  LEGS  OF  THE  "  PESTLE  "  TYPE 271 

87.  WOODEN  LEG  FOR  CASES  OF  DISARTICULATION  OF  THE  HIP  .          .  272 

88.  CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHIC  PHASES  OF  WALKING         .          .          .          .  273 

89.  TESTING  AN  ARTIFICIAL  LEG  ON  THE  DYNAMOGRAPHIC  GANGWAY  .  276 

90.  DYNAMOGRAPHIC  GANGWAY           .......  277 

91.  TRACINGS  OF  FOOTSTEPS  MADE  WITH  THE  DYNAMOGRAPHIC  GANGWAY  277 

92.  ARTIFICIAL  LEGS  IN  LEATHER     .......  279 

93.  MODELS  OF  ARTIFICIAL  LEGS  IN  WOOD  AND  LEATHER  .          .          .  281 

94.  AUTOMATIC  KNEE-JOINT  OF  ARTIFICIAL  LEG          ....  282 

95.  TIBIAL  MODEL,  No.  1,  OF  ARTIFICIAL  LEG  ....  283 

96.  TIBIAL  MODELS,  Nos.  2  AND  3 283 

97.  WORKING  ARM  BEING  TESTED      .......  285 

98.  AMAR'S    WORKER'S    ARM    WITH    PARADE    HAND    AND    UNIVERSAL 

HOLDER 287 

99.  UNIVERSAL  RING 289 

100.  WAISTCOATS  FOR  AMPUTATIONS  LEAVING  A  SHORT  STUMP  OR  NONE  290 

101.  WORKER'S  TYPE  OF  FORE-ARM  (AMAR) 292 

102.  LEVER  FORE-ARM  (AMAR) 294 

103.  MAGNETIC  HAND 297 

104.  ARTICULATED  HAND  (CAUET  TYPE,  AMAR'S  MODEL)       .          .          .  298 

105.  MECHANICAL  ARM  FOR  AN  AMPUTATION  OF  THE  FORE-ARM   .          .  299 

106.  MECHANICAL  ARM  FOR  AMPUTATIONS  OF  THE  UPPER  ARM    .          .  300 

107.  MECHANICAL  ARM  FOR  CASES  OF  DISARTICULATION  OF  THE  SHOULDER  301 

108.  CRIPPLED  TYPIST  USING  MECHANICAL  ARM  ....  302 

109.  CRIPPLED  VIOLINIST  FURNISHED  WITH  A  MECHANICAL  ARM.          .  303 

110.  OFFICER  PROVIDED  WITH  A  MECHANICAL  ARM       ....  304 

111.  THE  SAME  OFFICER  ON  HORSEBACK      ......  305 

112.  SPLINT  FOR  RADIAL  PARALYSIS  ......  307 

113.  THE  SAME  SUBJECT  DOING  OFFICE  WORK    .....  308 

114.  IMPROVED  APPLIANCE  FOR  THE  CURE  OF  RADIAL  PARALYSIS         .  309 

115.  GRAPHS  PRODUCED  BY  FILING  METAL  (ABLATION  OF  ULNA)  .          .  314 

116.  FILING  METAL — RECORD  OF  NORMAL  WORKER     ....  315 
116A.  FILING  METAL — RECORD  OF  AN  INFIRM  WORKER           .          .          .  315 

117.  ANALYSIS  OF  WORK  AND  FATIGUE  IN  THE  CASE  OF  AN  ARMLESS 

WORKER 316 

118.  GRAPHS  SHOWING  IMPROVEMENT  IN  A  SUBJECT  WHO  HAS  SUFFERED 

AMPUTATION  OF  THE  HUMERUS        ......  317 

119.  FORMING  A  LEFT-HANDED  WORKER      ......  318 

120.  EDUCATION  OF  THE  MOVEMENTS  BY  MEANS  OF  THE  DYNAMOGRAPHIC 

HAMMER 319 

121.  TRACING  OBTAINED  WITH  DYNAMOGRAPHIC  HAMMER     .          .          .  320 

122.  SELF-REGISTERING  DYNAMOGRAPHIC  HAMMER         ....  321 

123.  ONE-ARMED  MAN  USING  TICKET  PUNCH        .....  325 

124.  CASE  OF  ABLATION  OF  THE  FOUR  FINGERS  (CARPENTER)        .          .  327 

125.  THE  SAME  AT  WORK,  THANKS  TO  ARTIFICIAL  FINGERS    .          .          .  330 

126.  MARBLE  CUTTER  AND  SCULPTOR  PRACTISING  THEIR  CRAFTS  AT  HOME  332 
b* 


XX  LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

127.  FITTER  WORKING  IN  HIS  EMPLOYER'S  WORKSHOP           .          .          .  333 

128.  FAULTY  PROTHESIS 335 

129.  WORKSHOP  FOR  THE  RE-APPRENTICESHIP  OF  WAR-CRIPPLES.          .  337 

130.  ONE-ARMED  MECHANIC  MAKING  A  FORGING  ....  344 

131.  WOUNDED  SOLDIER  WORKING  THE  JOINTING-PLANE       .          .          .  345 

132.  ONE-ARMED  WORKER  CUTTING  WOOD  BY  MEANS  OF  A  RIP-SAW       .  346 

133.  ACCOUNTANT.     BOTH  HIS  FORE-ARMS  HAVE  BEEN  AMPUTATED       .  353 

134.  EMPLOYMENT  OF  THE  AESTHESIOGRAPHIC  TABLE  IN  THE  CASE  OF 

A  BLIND  CRIPPLE             ........  355 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  past  few  years  must  ever  prove  a  period  of  absorbing 
interest  to  students  of  industrial  problems.  Old  forces  now 
first  showed  appreciable  results  ;  new  forces  made  themselves 
felt.  Fear  is  felt  by  many  for  the  years  to  come,  and  indeed 
there  is  sufficient  cause,  for  dangers  lie  ahead.  But  there 
still  exists  a  means  of  averting  these  dangers  if  we  can  see 
clearly  enough  to  recognise  it  and  do  not  put  off  action 
until  it  is  too  late.  For  many  years  knowledge  has  been 
growing,  and  it  is  in  the  application  of  this  knowledge 
to-day  that  hope  may  lie.  Engineers  have  done  their  best 
to  improve  plant,  method,  and  machinery.  Invention  has 
followed  invention,  and  automatic  machinery  has  become 
well-nigh  human.  One  unused  to  factories  is  tempted  to  ask, 
'  Where  is  man  required  ? '  On  the  human  side  progress  has 
been  slower.  Nearly  a  hundred  years  ago  the  principle  was 
stated  that  man  himself  is  the  most  important  instrument  of 
industry,  but  hardly  ever  is  he  studied  as  machinery  has 
been  studied.  Masters  of  the  old  school  abhorred  all  thought 
of  interference  with  their  workmen,  and  workmen  did  not 
welcome  interference.  Now  both  are  wiser. 

About  fifty  years  ago,  by  an  accident  fortunate  in  its  results, 
a  young  American,  about  to  join  his  college,  was  prevented 
from  continuing  his  studies  and  went  to  work  instead.  He 
liked  the  new  conditions,  and  soon  rose  to  a  position  of 
authority,  but  to  his  surprise  was  quite  unable  to  obtain 


INTRODUCTION 

from  those  below  him  a  satisfactory  tale  of  work.  Unlike 
many  in  his  position  he  was  unwilling  to  accept  short  measure, 
even  where  short  measure  was  so  common,  but  spent  much 
time,  energy,  and  money  in  seeking  out  the  cause.  Finally 
he  found  it,  and  by  his  methods  proved  it  easy  not  only  to 
obtain  an  output  sufficient  to  satisfy  his  former  requisition, 
but  far  more  than  this. 

From  Taylor's  methods  developed  later  a  system  which  has 
been  widely  used.  It  has  been  modified  and  extended,  not 
only  in  the  country  of  its  birth,  and  through  the  work  of 
Taylor's  great  successor,  Gilbreth,  but  also  in  other  countries 
and  in  other  hands. 

It  may  be  asked  "  Why,  if  so  useful,  is  not  Taylor's  system 
universal  ?  "  The  answer  is,  "  Partly  because  of  early  pre- 
judice, partly  because  of  certain  inherent  difficulties." 
Prejudice  was  roused  by  some  of  those  with  whom  the  fate 
of  Taylor's  system  rested.  They  lacked  discretion,  and  their 
methods,  introduced  unwisely,  were  suspected,  misunderstood, 
and  rejected  by  the  men.  Had  tact  been  used,  and  the 
workmen  encouraged  to  understand  the  system,  all  would 
have  been  well.  Difficulties  arose  from  the  small  number  of 
those  acquainted  with  the  system,  and  from  the  time,  skill, 
and  money  needed  for  its  installation. 

Those  times  have  passed.  The  men  themselves,  conscious 
that  high  wages  and  much  leisure  go  with  Taylorism,  often 
support  it  strongly,  and,  when  war  broke  out,  it  was  advanc- 
ing rapidly,  not  only  in  the  factories  of  America  and  of 
Europe,  but  in  those  of  Asia  also. 

The  system  introduced  by  Taylor  and  since  extended  has 
done  much  to  help  the  workman.  It  has  given  him  high  wages, 
short  hours,  surroundings  the  best  that  money  can  secure. 


INTRODUCTION  XX111 

For  capital  it  has  done  no  less,  since  by  its  means  output  has 
been  raised,  and  working  costs  decreased.  From  the  scientific 
side  it  may  perhaps  be  criticised  because,  though  dealing  with 
complex  problems  of  physiology,  it  is  founded  on  trial  and 
error,  and  concerns  itself  with  results  of  immediate  usefulness, 
rather  than  with  experimental  investigation  of  fundamental 
facts.  For  this  reason  it  was  not  possible  to  formulate 
rules  of  general  application  for  the  conduct  of  industrial  pro- 
cesses. Each  occupation  needed  to  be  studied  separately  and 
apart  from  others.  Thus  much  time  was  necessary,  and  to 
this  need  for  time  must  be  attributed  the  tardy  introduction 
of  Taylorism  and  scientific  management  into  industry  after 
the  first  prejudice  had  died. 

The  matter  now  enters  upon  a  new  phase,  and  experiments 
on  stricter  lines  are  in  progress.  Thanks  to  the  patience  and 
ingenuity  of  the  Gilbreths  in  America,  measurements  of  time 
and  space  of  greatest  accuracy  are  constantly  employed,  and  a 
knowledge  of  their  value  in  this  connection  is  extending  to 
other  countries.  In  England  inquiries  have  been  made  into 
the  influence  of  fatigue  on  labour,  and  into  the  conditions 
upon  which  fatigue  depends,  as  well  as  into  a  great  variety  of 
the  circumstances  of  industrial  occupations.  And  funda- 
mental data  are  now  being  sought,  applicable  to  all  employ- 
ments, so  that  time  may  be  economised.  In  France  the 
direction  taken  was  somewhat  different,  an  attempt  being  made 
to  scrutinise  the  results  of  Taylor's  methods  in  the  light  of 
accurate  measurements  of  push  and  pull,  pressure  and  force 
required  in  various  occupations,  and  to  introduce  improve- 
ments where  need  for  these  was  shown.  Thj  happy  facility 
which  the  French  possess  of  devising  instruments  of  greatest 
delicacy  and  of  employing  them  to  useful  ends  made  this 


XXIV  INTRODUCTION 

easy,  and  results  of  value  were  soon  obtained.  Especially 
is  this  true  of  M.  Amar,  appointed  by  the  Minister  of 
Labour  to  investigate  the  methods  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment and  to  adapt  it  to  new  needs  and  circumstances. 
Few  physiologists  had  turned  their  attention  to  the  organ- 
isation of  labour,  though  the  whole  matter  rests  on  physiology, 
and  therefore  it  was  expected  that  the  methods  of  the 
physiological  laboratory  would  prove  most  fruitful.  The 
way  in  which  those  methods  were  employed  is  described 
by  M.  Amar  so  clearly  and  with  such  wealth  of  illustration  in 
his  book  that  it  may  be  followed  with  ease  not  only  by  the 
expert  but  also  by  the  ordinary  reader.  The  book  indeed  is 
written  to  be  understood  by  the  people,  and  its  appeal  is  largely 
to  those  unfamiliar  with  the  difficult  ways  of  science.  But 
like  all  else  the  book  is  over-shadowed  by  the  war,  and  its 
appeal  to  many  will  rest  upon  the  fact  that  its  reference  is  not 
solely  to  the  normal  individual,  but  also  and  in  large  measure 
to  the  crippled.  In  this  direction  M.  Amar  is  a  successful 
pioneer,  and  at  a  time  when  every  endeavour  is  being  made 
to  help  those  disabled  in  the  war,  it  is  a  matter  of  the  highest 
interest  to  be  assured  that  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  victims 
of  amputation  should  be  found  capable  of  re-education  to 
such  a  pitch  as  to  enable  them  to  re-enter  their  former 
occupation,  or  another  sufficiently  like  it  to  make  their  old 
experience  useful,  whilst  even  for  the  remainder  there  is  hope 
of  honourable  independence. 

So  great  indeed  will  be  the  interest  aroused  by  this  particular 
aspect  of  the  work  that  there  is  some  probability  of  our  for- 
getting that  industry  has  her  victims  no  less  than  war.  Yet 
for  the  former,  as  for  the  latter,  the  methods  of  M.  Amar  are 
available,  and  should  lead  to  results  no  less  admirable. 


INTRODUCTION  XXV 

These  aspects  of  the  subject  are  of  great  and  compelling 
interest.  There  is  yet  another.  It  is  that  of  reconstruction 
— not  of  broken  men,  but  of  broken  industries.  The  work 
carried  out  in  America,  in  England,  and  in  France  must  be 
relied  upon  as  our  chief  security  against  industrial  chaos.  In 
it  we  possess  a  means  of  organising  industry  upon  new  lines  so 
as  to  provide  an  increased  output  and  lowered  costs  at  the 
same  time  that  shorter  hours  are  worked,  and  leisure  greater 
than  even  before  is  secured  to  the  working  man.  Through 
lowered  costs  and  increased  output  high  wages  may  be  main- 
tained ;  more  leisure  should  give  rise  to  higher  development 
amongst  the  workers. 

The  author  then  appeals  to  us  on  three  distinct  accounts. 
He  shows  us,  first,  how  those  crippled  in  the  war,  and  second, 
how  those  crippled  in  industry,  may  be  restored  to  usefulness, 
and,  further,  he  contributes  to  that  knowledge  upon  which 
our  hope  of  future  prosperity  depends. 

Bristol,  1918.  A.  F.  STANLEY  KENT. 


THE 

PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

AND    THE 

RE-EMPLOYMENT  OF   THE   DISABLED 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF 
INDUSTRIAL  ORGANISATION 

AND   THE 

RE-EMPLOYMENT  OF  THE  DISABLED 

CHAPTER    I 
HUMAN   LABOUR— ITS  HISTORY  AND  ITS  DOCTRINES 

I.  On  the  25th  of  January,  1829,  when  opening  his  course 
of  lectures  upon  Geometry  and  Applied  Mechanics,  of  which 
subjects  he  was  the  professor,  at  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts 
et  Metiers,  Baron  Charles  Dupin  delivered  the  following 
remarks  : 

"  Men  have  concerned  themselves  very  largely  with  per- 
fecting the  machinery,  the  instruments,  the  material  imple- 
ments, which  the  worker  employs  in  the  mechanical  arts. 
But  they  have  hardly  ever  concerned  themselves  with  per- 
fecting the  worker  himself.  Yet  even  if  he  should  be  regarded 
as  an  instrument,  a  tool,  a  source  of  motive  power,  he  ought 
to  be  placed  in  the  front  rank  of  all  instruments  and  all 
mechanical  agents,  because  he  possesses  the  inestimable 
advantage  of  being  an  instrument  which  watches  and  corrects 
itself,  a  motor  which  starts  or  stops  itself,  at  the  bidding  of 
its  own  intelligence,  and  which  perfects  itself  by  means  of 
thought  no  less  than  by  means  of  labour."  x 

1  Charles  Dupin  (1784-1873),  a  French  geometrician  and  economist  of  great 
originality. 

B  1 


2  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

Dupin,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  concert  with  Poncelet,1  had 
lately  entered  upon  an  admirable  campaign  in  favour  of  the 
diffusion  of  ideas  of  method,  and  of  teaching  the  handicrafts 
in  labour  centres.  He  was  also  anxious  that  the  theory  of 
fatigue  should  be  investigated,  and  that  the  worker  should 
be  protected  from  over-exertion.  But  the  movement  came 
to  nothing  ;  firstly,  on  account  of  the  chimerical  and  over- 
generous  temper  of  which  Dupin  was  accused,  and  secondly, 
because  1830  was  approaching.  Charles  X.  was  solicited 
for  his  patronage,  but  he  did  not  respond  ;  he  had  something 
better  to  do — namely,  to  make  his  departure.  Lastly,  the 
theory  of  the  transformation  of  energy  was  yet  unborn ;  the 
majority  of  scientists,  if  not  all,  accepted  the  doctrine  of  vital 
forces,  which  were  supposed  to  be  immaterial,  and  therefore 
beyond  the  scope  of  our  methods  of  measurement. 

As  for  the  workers  of  France,  they  were  hardly  aware 
either  of  their  rights  or  of  their  duties  ;  extremely  uneducated, 
they  swept  out  the  factories  in  which  workers  of  a  different 
nationality — chiefly  Englishmen — provided  the  labour.  And 
a  French  Minister,  on  visiting  one  of  these  establishments, 
merely  wondered  at  the  sight ;  the  contrast  was  obviously 
enough  to  shock  his  feelings. 

Despite  this  official  indifference,  Dupin  and  Poncelet 
succeeded  in  creating  teaching  centres  of  a  modest  kind, 
Tvhich  very  quickly  became  popular,  in  Paris,  Metz,  and 
Rochefort.  Unfortunately,  for  lack  of  resources,  and  in 
the  absence  of  experimental  work,  the  science  of  human 
labour  remained  as  backward  as  before ;  the  physiologists 
and  economists  seemed  even  to  despair  of  such  a  science. 

Only  in  our  own  times,  and  above  all  since  1890,  has  it 
made  its  way,  by  triumphant  stages,  to  those  heights  from 
which  it  now  sheds  so  brilliant  a  radiance.  It  owes  this 
success  to  two  different  methods  :  the  method  of  the  physicists, 
and  that  of  the  physiologists.  We  will  consider  these 
separately.2 

1  Jean-Victor  Poncelet,  a  French  mechanician  and  general,  born  at  Metz  in 
1788,  died  1867. 

2  See,  in  La  Technique  Moderne,  1  May,  1914,  an  interesting  historical  sketch 
from  the  pen  of  Henri  Verne. 


HUMAN    LABOUR — ITS    HISTORY    AND    ITS    DOCTRINES  3 

II.— A.  PHYSICAL  RESEARCH. — Familiar,  from  all  times, 
with  the  arts  and  crafts,  and  almost  the  sole  overseers  of  labour, 
the  engineers  were  the  first  to  investigate  the  subject  of 
human  labour.  But  even  the  ablest  confined  themselves 
to  determining  the  maximum  of  effort  or  of  pace  ;  more 
rarely  they  turned  their  attention  to  continuous  and  protracted 
action.  These  experiments,  which  were  very  incomplete, 
were,  however,  witnessed  by  the  princes  of  the  Court,  especially 
during  the  reign  of  the  Great  Monarch.  De  La  Hire  (1640- 
1718)  and  Amontons  (1633-1703)  made  tentative  experi- 
ments ;  the  Bernoulli!  brothers,  and  at  a  later  date  Euler, 
endeavoured  to  determine  the  mathematical  formula  of  the 
maximum  of  work.1 

In  1722  the  Chevalier  De  Camus,  a  native  of  Lorraine, 
gave  proof  of  a  genuinely  practical  mind  by  writing  his 
Treatise  on  Moving  Forces,  in  plain  and  simple  language, 
"  for  the  use  of  working  men."  He  defined  the  centre  of 
gravity,  demonstrating  its  importance  in  all  our  movements 
and  attitudes,  and  in  connection  with  fatigue.  "  When  two 
men  are  carrying  a  burden,"  he  explains,  "  the  taller  man  is 
less  heavily  laden  than  the  shorter,  and  the  higher  the  tall 
man  raises  the  load,  the  less  heavily  is  he  burdened,  and  the 
more  heavily  he  burdens  the  short  man  "  (p.  34).  And  so 
forth,  in  connection  with  various  circumstances  of  manual 
labour. 

No  book  could  have  been  better  adapted  to  inculcate  the 
husbanding  of  human  energies,  or  to  instruct  the  working- 
man,  than  the  work  of  this  worthy  gentleman. 

Vauban,2  in  a  little  work  entitled  Le  Directeur-general 
des  fortifications,  which  was  apparently  published  in  the  year 
1680,  gave  information  which  had  more  experience  behind  it 
and  was  of  wider  range.  It  referred  to  earthworks,  embank- 
ments, etc.  (terrassements).  I  select  from  it  this  observation  : 

I  am  confident,"  says  Vauban,  "  that  no  one  who  has  had 

1  Jules  Amar,  Le  Moteur  Humain,  p.  235. 

2Sebastien  Le  Prestre  de  Vauban  (1633-1707),  Marshal  of  France,  and  an 
•eminent  engineer ;  disgraced  on  account  of  his  book,  La  Dime  royale,  in  which 
he  put  forward  a  plea  for  equality  of  taxation. 


4  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

a  little  experience  in  the  control  of  labour  can  fail  to  agree 
that  four  men  who  are  well  supervised  do  more  work  than 
six  men  who  are  left  to  their  own  discretion."  .  .  .  And  in 
1729  Belidor,  who  was  also  a  military  engineer,  declared : 
"  Supervision  costs  less  than  the  diminution  of  labour  to  which 
its  absence  gives  rise."  And  elsewhere  he  says  :  "  It  is 
certain  that  ten  hours'  work  from  a  man  who  has  his  own 
interest  for  foreman  is  worth  at  least  fifteen  hours  from  another 
whose  daily  wage  is  fixed.1  To  drive  men  further  than  this 
is  to  overstrain  them,  to  risk  their  falling  ill,  or  failing  to  hold 
out  for  any  length  of  time."  We  hear  the  first  lispings  of  the 
Contrat  social  when  Belidor  protests  in  favour  of  easier  con- 
ditions of  life  for  the  workers,  in  view  of  "  the  dearness  of 
victuals  "- — or  the  generous  echoes  of  the  great  voice  which 
fell  silent  after  the  Dime  royale.  This  scientific  courage 
struck  the  hour  of  awakening  conscience. 

III.  Coulomb — We  must  go  to  Coulomb  2  for  a  really 
interesting  description  of  fatigue,  and  of  the  estimation  and 
comparison  of  the  various  forms  of  human  labour.  This 
physicist,  the  greatest  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  sent 
to  Martinique  as  an  officer  in  the  engineers.  There  he  made 
the  evaluations  in  question,  dealing  with  workers  paid  by 
the  piece.  Thanks  to  skilful  measurements  in  respect  of  the 
carrying  of  burdens,  the  working  of  cranks,  winches,  and 
pile-drivers,  and  the  operations  of  husbandry,  he  was  able  to 
collect  material  for  an  admirable  study  of  human  energies — 
his  Memoire  sur  la  force  des  hommes.  Written  in  1785,  this 
memoir  did  not  see  the  light  until  1798,  when  M.  de  Coulomb 
had  made  way  for  "  Citizen  Coulomb,  of  the  Institute." 

Let  us  select  a  few  remarks  of  a  general  character  :  "It 
appears,"  says  Coulomb,  "  that  the  method  of  dividing  the 
labour  of  men  who  carry  heavy  burdens  into  brief  intervals 
of  action  and  repose  is  that  which  is  best  adapted  to  the 
animal  economy,  and  that  men  prefer  to  walk  quickly  for  a 
few  moments,  and  then  to  rest  completely  for  a  few  moments, 

1  This  proportion  of  2  to  3  had  already  been  given  by  Vauban. 

2  Charles-Auguste  de  Coulomb  (1736-1806),  born  at  Angouleme. 


HUMAN    LABOUR ITS    HISTORY    AND    ITS    DOCTRINES  O 

to  covering  the  same  distance  in  a  time  equal  to  these  two 
intervals,  at  a  slower  but  more  continuous  pace."  And  the 
amount  of  labour  thus  performed  "  varies  according  to  ability, 
the  selection  of  workers,  food  .  .  .  and  climate."  These  two 
last  factors  of  the  human  output,  food  and  climate,  are  here 
stated  for  the  first  time.  They  are  essential  physiological 
factors,  and  Coulomb  adds  a  hint  of  a  psychological  order  as 
to  the  method  of  investigation.  "  It  is  necessary,"  he  says, 
"  to  observe  a  good  workman,  who  is  paid  by  the  piece  ;  at 
the  same  time,  he  must  not  be  aware  that  he  is  under  observa- 
tion, lest  this  should  affect  his  work  for  the  time  being." 

Up  to  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  no  more  important 
work  than  Coulomb's  had  appeared.  His  ideas  were  expressed 
in  different  forms  ;  men  borrowed  from  his  observations,  and, 
above  all,  exaggerated  their  value,  since  they  were,  for  the 
most  part,  based  upon  a  single  direct  determination  ;  while 
in  other  instances  Coulomb  borrowed  from  his  predecessors, 
with  unfortunate  results. 

But  of  late  years  the  method  of  these  old  engineers  has 
been  elucidated  by  the  brilliant  research  work,  both  practical 
and  theoretical,  of  an  American  engineer,  Frederic  Taylor. 

IV.  The  Taylor  System. — -Taylor's  principles  of  the  organ- 
isation of  labour  assuredly  constitute  the  most  comprehensive 
system  known  to  industry.  They  teach  the  sovereign  power 
of  mathematical  certainties,  of  method,  and  of  order,  of  which 
they  are  the  pure  expression.1 

Frederic  Winslow  Taylor  (Fig.  1)  was  born  in  1856,  in 
German  town,  Pennsylvania,  and  died  in  Philadelphia  on  the 
21st  of  March,  1915.  From  the  position  of  a  common  porter, 
he  gradually  rose  to  the  dignity  of  engineer,  and  then  to 
that  of  factory  manager.  His  persistent  industry  and  his 
great  technical  and  practical  intelligence  quickly  caused 
him  to  be  appreciated  ;  while  his  original  work  in  the  economic 
domain  made  him  famous  all  the  world  over,  and  brought 

1  See  Le  Moteur  Humain,  pp.  343,  496,  et  seq.,  and  H.  Le  Chatelier  in  the 
Bsvue  de  Metallurgie,  p.  185,  April,  1915. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


him  legitimate  wealth.     He  was  the  first  to  succeed  in  organ- 
ising human  labour  in  a  rational  and  scientific  manner. 
To  attain  this  object,  he  entered  upon  two  simultaneous 

undertakings  : 

1.  Organisation  of  plant. — 
First  of  all,  it  was  necessary 
to  constitute  a  highly  per- 

^^r  fected  plant  or  equipment, 

which  should  realise  the 
form,  the  dimensions,  the 
weight,  and  the  quality  cal- 
culated to  result  in  speedy 
work.  It  was  necessary 
to  undertake  the  scientific 
investigation  of  this  par- 
ticular point;  but  such 
investigations  are  almost 
always  refused  by  the 
manufacturer,  because  they 
cost  him  money,  and  he 
does  not  perceive  their 
immediate  utility. 

Taylor  managed  to 
triumph  over  this  reluct- 
ance, and  was  able  to  spend  more  than  £40,000  in 
laboratory  research,  during  a  period  of  nearly  twenty-five 
years  (1880  to  1903) ;  and  assuredly  time  and  money  could 
not  have  been  better  employed. 

2.  Organisation  of  labour. — It  was  then  necessary  to  form 
a  staff  adapted  to  this  technique  and  these  conditions  of 
speed ;  a  staff,  consequently,  of  which  each  member  was 
really  in  his  right  place,  whether  he  gave  orders  or  obeyed 
them  ;  and  it  was  necessary  to  train  this  staff.  This  was  a 
most  difficult  task,  but  Taylor's  tenacity  was  victorious. 

As  for  instructions  relating  to  the  preparation  and  execu- 
tion of  work,  these  were  given  in  writing,  on  instruction  cards, 
and  the  workers  were  taught  to  interpret  them  without 
hesitation.  Above  all,  they  were  shown  what  movements. 


FIG.  1.— F.  W.  Taylor  (1856-1915). 


HUMAN    LABOUR ITS    HISTORY    AND    ITS    DOCTRINES  7 

are  required  in  the  use  of  a  given  tool  01  a  given  process,  and 
what  movements  should  be  dispensed  with,  as  they  are 
usually  made  without  reflection,  and  are  consequently  without 
profit.  Those  movements  which  are  useful  should  be  performed 
in  a  minimum  time,  and  other  movements  should  be  avoided. 

To  satisfy  this  law  of  economy  Taylor  had  to  time  the  different 
actions  and  movements  of  the  worker,  retaining  only  those 
whose  efficacy  was  not  doubtful.  And  as  all  those  enlisted  by 
industry  could  not  break  themselves  in  to  this  mode  of  activity, 


Preparation 


Execution 


FIG.  2. — Scheme  of  the  Taylor  System  of  Organisation. 

he  retained  only  the  more  capable.     So  that  timing  and  selec- 
tion are  the  two  characteristics  of  the  Taylor  method. 

For  example,  the  handling  of  a  casting  is  in  question. 
The  time  required  for  this  operation  will  be  analysed  as 
follows  :  removing  the  casting  from  the  ground  or  stack  ; 
carrying  the  said  burden  ;  placing  the  burden  on  the  ground 
or  depositing  it  upon  a  stack  ;  returning  empty-handed.  The 
analysis  is  made,  as  Coulomb  advised  (p.  111.),  as  a  result 
of  the  examination  of  a  capable  and  healthy  worker,  paid  by 
the  piece,  who  is  taken  as  a  model,  and,  to  a  certain  extent, 
as  a  standard. 


8  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

The  workers  are  then  trained  by  instructors  with  a  view  to 
attaining  the  output  of  the  model  worker  ;  both  the  move- 
ments to  be  made  and  the  safeguards  against  delay  being 
recorded  on  the  cards  which  are  given  to  them.  Apprentice- 
ship becomes  rapid  and  methodical,  and  there  is,  in  every 
workshop,  an  intense  functional  life,  in  which  time  is  literally 
money.  The  connection  of  the  various  functions  is  pretty 
well  symbolised  by  the  chart  here  given  (Fig.  2).  It  leaves 
no  room  for  any  cause  of  waste  or  delay.  It  reflects  order  and 
measurement. 

V.  Advantages  of  the  Taylor  System. — In  foundries  especi- 
ally these  principles  yielded  surprising  results.  In  a  matter 
as  simple  as  the  removal  of  pigs  of  cast  iron,  the  load  trans- 
ported was  increased  to  47  tons  per  man  per  day,  as  against 
the  usual  12  or  13  tons.  That  is,  the  useful  effort  of  the 
worker  was  multiplied  fourfold. 

But  Taylorism  has  a  character  of  universality;  it  can  be 
applied  to  all  branches  of  industry  ;  to  industrial,  agricultural, 
and  commercial  work ;  a  point  upon  which  especial  stress 
has  been  laid. 

Here  is  an  illustrative  anecdote  :  A  disciple  of  Taylor, 
the  engineer  Frank  Gilbreth,  having  visited  the  Anglo- Japanese 
Exhibition  in  London,  saw  there  a  young  girl  who  was  placing 
circulars  in  blacking-boxes  with  a  wonderful  and  instinctive 
dexterity.  He  had  no  sooner  considered  her  task  than  he 
began  to  note  her  movements  and  to  time  them.  Forty 
seconds  were  needed  to  prepare  twenty-four  boxes.  Gilbreth 
then  informed  the  young  woman  that  she  was  not  going  the 
quickest  way  to  work.  Very  sure  of  her  dexterity,  she  scoffed 
at  him,  but  finally  consented  to  omit  the  movements  which 
he  considered  useless.  As  she  was  on  piecework,  she  was 
tempted  by  the  idea  of  increased  wages.  In  a  few  days  she 
succeeded  in  handling  the  twenty-four  boxes,  not  in  forty 
seconds,  but  in  twenty-six.  She  admitted,  moreover,  that  the 
work  seemed  less  fatiguing. 

Little  things  teach  important  lessons. 

The  American  method,  then,  possesses  an  educative  virtue  ; 


HUMAN    LABOUR ITS    HISTORY    AND    ITS    DOCTRINES  9 

it  comprises  incontestable  scientific  truths.  It  is,  in  a  word, 
method  ;  that  is  to  say,  order  and  harmony. 

The  worker  who  moves  to  the  right  and  the  left  in  search 
of  his  tools,  who  is  forever  coming  and  going,  repeating  the 
same  process  day  by  day,  while  his  work  awaits  his  con- 
venience; the  manufacturer  who  refuses  to  introduce  those 
changes  in  his  staff  and  his  plant  which  his  works  require  : 
and  the  man  who,  in  his  office,  is  constantly  mislaying  his 
pen,  or  his  notes,  or  a  letter  received  ;  are  they  not  living 
examples  of  the  rule-of-thumb  and  the  lack  of  order  which 
Taylor  condemned  ? 

Henceforth  the  uneconomical  results  of  the  ordinary  clumsi- 
ness of  human  beings  are  plainly  evident.  Great  and  small 
may,  in  the  light  of  this  doctrine,  follow  a  scientific  discipline 
and  enter  upon  the  true  apprenticeship,  the  apprenticeship  to 
order.  Beginners  will  not  fatigue  themselves  in  vain  ;  they 
will  quickly  become  adroit  and  skilful  in  their  craft.  Any 
man  engaged  upon  piecework,  and  anxious  to  increase  his 
earnings,  is  thus  won  over  to  the  method.  To  be  sure,  selec- 
tion can  only  be  effected  by  means  of  elimination  ;  and  manv 
workers  who  would  like  to  adopt  this  or  that  calling  find 
themselves  ousted  by  men  more  capable  than  themselves. 
However,  they  are  not  necessarily  reduced  to  poverty.  As 
Taylor  remarks — and  his  words  are  even  truer  to-day — 
"  There  is  at  present  such  a  demand  for  labour  that  no  work- 
ing-man is  forced  to  be  idle  for  more  than  a  day  or  two;  so 
that  the  less  capable  workers  are  not  more  unfortunate  than 
before.  Instead  of  pitying  them  we  ought,  on  the  contrary, 
to  congratulate  ourselves,  and  rejoice  that  a  great  number 
of  valuable  workers  have  at  least  the  chance  of  earning  high 
wages,  and  of  progressing  towards  prosperity." 

VI.  Criticisms  of  the  Taylor  System.— Taylor's  system  of 
organisation,  admirable  as  it  is,  lies  open  to  certain  criticisms 
which  apply  not  to  it  alone,  but  to  all  the  mechanical  theories 
of  human  labour,  whose  elucidation  we  have  postponed  to 
the  present  moment. 

1.  The  Taylor  system  lacks  elasticity. — An  extremely  strict 


10  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

adaptation  of  the  man  to  his  task,  and  a  differentiation  of 
the  various  departments  of  labour,  which  is  carried  to  great 
lengths,  and  is  at  the  same  time  extremely  definite,  are  justified 
in  theory,  but  in  practice  they  are  impossible,  if  we  reflect, 
on  the  one  hand,  that  a  more  urgent  demand  is  made  of 
labour,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  latter  tends  to  become 
less  plentiful.  We  are  therefore  obliged,  to  some  extent,  to 
exercise  less  severity  in  selecting  workers,  and  to  compromise 
in  the  matter  of  quality — which  we  require  to  be  of  a  superior 
degree— in  order  to  obtain  the  desired  quantity.  We  are  not 
only  obliged  to  do  so  ;  we  ought  to  relax  the  principles  of  the 
system,  unless  we  wish  to  deny  the  fact  of  adaptability  and 
the  influence  of  the  will.  A  given  worker,  who,  during  a  first 
test,  does  not  seem  suitable  as  a  Taylorian  model  or  standard, 
will  become  so  by  force  of  application.  In  the  province  of 
art  we  might  instance  the  case  of  the  great  Rachel,  whose 
vocation  would  have  been  destroyed  by  the  application  of 
Taylorism.  Vocation  is  precisely  the  word :  the  American 
principles  discourage  the  fulfilment  of  a  vocation,  for  the 
latter  comprises  a  non-mechanical  element  which  escapes 
calculation  and  prevision. 

In  other  words,  a  civilised  man,  even  though  imperfectly 
educated,  possesses  reserves  of  moral  energy  which  may 
enable  him  to  overcome  many  difficulties,  and  accelerate  the 
process  of  shaping  him  as  a  worker. 

We  cannot  entirely  disregard  these  reserves. 

The  Taylor  system,  therefore,  is  wanting  in  elasticity;  at 
all  events,  it  should  not  be  too  rigidly  framed. 

2.  The  Taylor  system  is  incomplete. — Even  if  one  were  to 
form  model  workers  in  conformity  with  the  rules  of  the  Taylor 
system,  a  serious  problem  would  still  remain  to  be  solved. 
The  selection  of  workers  and  implements  enables  us  only  to 
improve  technique  and  to  increase  production.  But  we  are 
not  told  how  the  human  organism  is  to  be  protected  from 
overstrain,  and  what  are  actually  the  physiological  conditions 
under  which  the  best  work  is  performed.  Like  La  Hire, 
Amontons,  and  Coulomb,  Taylor  considered  only  a  part  of 
the  human  machine — that  which  performs  work  ;  in  other 


HUMAN    LABOUR ITS    HISTORY    AND    ITS    DOCTRINES          11 

words,  the  instrument.  He  neglected  the  other  portion  of  the 
whole,  from  which  the  implement  receives  its  motive  force, 
and  which,  on  this  account,  we  will  call  the  motor. 

The  receiving  instrument  and  the  motor  must  not  be 
separated  when  the  productive  value  of  the  machine  is  under 
consideration  ;  and  in  the  human  worker  especially  they  are 
inseparable.  In  him,  above  all,  the  output  of  the  motor  is 
considerably  modified,  if  it  is  nourished  with  good  fuel  and 
punctually  relieved  of  the  waste  products  which  clog  it ;  if  it 
is  worked  at  a  given  speed,  and  under  a  given  load,  rather 
than  at  other  speeds  and  under  other  loads  ;  and  if  it  is  placed 
in  an  environment  which,  so  far  from  impeding  its  functioning, 
tends,  on  the  contrary,  to  favour  it. 

The  Taylor  system  is  admirably  devised  for  training  the 
human  implement  to  work  rapidly,  and  at  its  best ;  but  it 
gives  us  no  information  relating  to  the  motor,  properly  so  called. 

The  American  engineer  admits,  for  example,  that  he  has 
observed  signs  of  "  very  great  fatigue,"  in  the  women  who 
sort  the  balls  for  bicycle  bearings.  Forced  to  perform  work 
very  quickly,  and  with  very  great  attention,  these  women  are 
unable  to  adapt  themselves  to  this  kind  of  labour  in  a  greater 
proportion  than  35  out  of  120.  The  rest  have  to  relinquish 
it,  or  they  are  threatened  with  nervous  exhaustion. 

The  increasing  part  played  in  modern  labour  by  this  close 
attention,  and  by  skill  and  dexterity,  increases  the  exhaustion 
of  the  nervous  centres,  of  cerebral  energy,  concerning  which 
— and  it  is  the  same,  with  muscular  energy — Taylor  gives  us 
no  exact  information.  But  his  great  experience  of  men 
enabled  him  to  avoid  many  dangers.  The  result  was  certainly 
admirable,  and  it  would  inspire  confidence  if  every  engineer 
had  an  instinct  equally  sure.  Observations  as  to  the  degree 
of  fatigue  produced,  made  at  a  glance,  cannot  replace  objective 
tests  and  measurements,  nor  supply  the  place  of  the  physio- 
logical conditions  which  ought  to  govern  human  activity. 
And  of  what  value  would  such  observations  be  to-day,  in  the 
case  of  the  work  performed  by  war-cripples  ?  The  physio- 
logical limitation  of  great  numbers  of  persons  of  this  class, 
the  necessity  of  utilising  them  in  good  earnest,  and  the  social 


12  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

problem  created  by  their  employment  in  industry,  demand  a 
completer  system  of  scientific  control,  a  system  capable  of 
analysing  all  the  factors  of  human  energy. 

For  these  reasons  the  American  doctrine,  despite  its  exact 
technique,  illuminated  by  the  radiance  of  mathematical 
research,  is  nevertheless  incomplete,  because,  like  the  experi- 
ments of  the  older  physicists,  it  does  not  take  the  physiological 
data  into  account,  nor  does  it  define  the  normal  output  of  the 
human  motor. 

VII. — B.  PHYSIOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. — With  better  judgment 
than  the  mechanists,  the  physiologists  turned  their  attention 
to  the  exchanges  of  energy  of  which  the  living  organism  is 
the  theatre,  whether  during  work  or  repose.  In  all  forms  of 
human  activity  there  is  a  consumption,  an  expense  of  energy, 
which  draws  upon  the  reserves  of  our  body-cells,  at  the  expense 
of  alimentation. 

This  energy,  the  "  vital  forces  "  of  the  older  writers,  the 
physiologists  are  able  to  measure.  A  simple  comparison 
will  make  this  clear. 

The  steam-engine,  for  example,  develops  power  and  heat 
by  burning  a  combustible,  oxydising  it  by  means  of  the  active 
gas  of  the  atmosphere,  oxygen.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
expenditure  of  energy,  instead  of  being  estimated  in  terms  of 
carbon,  might  just  as  well  be  expressed  in  litres  of  oxygen, 
the  quantity  of  this  gas  being  strictly  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  fuel  which  it  transforms,  with  the  evolution  of 
heat  and  work. 

Similarly,  we  observe  in  the  body  of  the  animal  a  trans- 
formation of  the  food  absorbed,  by  the  action  of  the  oxygen 
respired,  together  with  the  production  of  muscular  and 
nervous  work  and  heat.  Skilful  experimenters,  such  as 
Chaveau,  in  France,  educed  the  positive  proof  that  the  animal 
is  the  theatre  of  the  same  operations  as  those  which  are 
effected  in  heat  engines,  although  we  then  knew  nothing  of 
the  nature  of  vital  combustion. 

Energy,  in  its  manifold  aspects,  originates  in  these  extensive 
phenomena  of  oxidation  :  the  energy  of  our  muscles,  visible 


HUMAN    LABOUR ITS    HISTORY    AND    ITS    DOCTRINES 


13 


and  measurable  ;  the  energy  of  thought,  mysterious  in  its 
essence,  and  infinitely  varied  in  its  manifestations. 

This  was  verified  in  the  magnificent  laboratories  which 
were  established  in  Boston  by  the  generosity  of  Mr.  Carnegie. 

A  calorimetric  chamber,  about  15ft.  square,  and  of  about 
the  same  height,  is  arranged  for  the  reception  of  the  human 
subject.  The  air  supply  is  so  devised  that  it  can  be  analysed 
as  it  enters  and  as  it  leaves. 


FIG.  3. — Calorimetric  Chamber,  Boston. 

It  is  even  possible  to  measure,  with  great  exactitude,  the 
heat  radiated  by  the  body  of  the  subject.  The  whole  installa- 
tion, which  was  described  in  our  volume,  The  Human  Motor 
(Le  Moteur  humain,  p.  199),  cost  more  than  £40,000  (Fig.  3). 

Experiments  which  were  ably  directed  by  Messrs.  Atwater 
and  Benedict  proved  that  the  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed 
is  strictly  regulated  by  the  amount  of  energy  produced,  the 
latter  being  measured  in  calories.1 

1  The  large  calorie  is  in  this  case  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  1  litre  of  pure  water  from  0°  to  1°  Centigrade.  To  estimate  the 
kilogram-metres  of  work  in  the  same  unit,  divide  the  former  by  426,  there  being 
an  equivalence  between  426  kilogram-metres  of  work  and  1  calorie. 


14  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

One  litre  of  oxygen  is  equivalent  to  4-9  calories  :  that  is  to 
say,  the  various  foodstuffs  burned  by  that  amount  of  oxygen 
in  the  cells  of  the  body  develop  as  much  heat  as  about  two- 
thirds  of  a  gramme  of  coal. 

Fats,  sugars,  and  albumins  are  concentrated  in  the  micro- 
scopic furnaces  of  the  human  machine,  under  the  continual 
insufflation  of  oxygen,  and  liberate  energy.  Hence  the 
heat  which  maintains  the  constant  temperature  of  the  body, 
a  temperature  of  98-4°  Fahr.  (almost  exactly  37°  Cent.), 
and  muscular  labour.  We  shall  explain  further  on  how  it 
is  possible  to  measure  at  any  moment,  every  minute  if  desired, 
the  consumption  of  respired  oxygen,  and  to  follow  the  varia- 
tions of  energy  which  the  organism  displays  under  any  different 
set  of  circumstances.  Nothing  could  be  more  reliable  or  more 
practical  than  the  method  employed. 

On  the  other  hand,  physiology  turns  its  attention  to  analys- 
ing the  phenomena  of  fatigue,  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
affect  the  output  of  nervous  and  muscular  energy,  the  functions 
of  circulation  and  respiration,  and  the  production  of  organic 
poisons,  or  auto-intoxication  ;  and  it  aims  at  defining  the 
normal  limits  of  this  fatigue,  in  order  that  over-exertion  may 
be  avoided  with  certainty. 

We  have  here,  therefore,  a  profounder  and  more  exact 
science  than  the  purely  mechanical  method.  This  explains 
why  it  was  recommended  in  the  dawn  of  energetics  by  the 
founders  of  that  doctrine  :  Him,  de  Colmar,  and  Helmholtz 
(1848,  1854). 

VIII.  Lavoisier.— But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
most  ingenious  chemist  of  modern  times,  Lavoisier,1  initiated 
the  era  of  the  measurements  and  investigations  of  which  we  are 
speaking  (Fig.  4).  He  established  the  relation  between  the 
oxidation  of  the  body  and  the  production  of  "  energies." 
With  his  collaborator  Seguin  as  subject,  he  determined  the 
quantities  of  oxygen  respired,  during  repose  and  during 
labour.  With  his  face  covered  by  a  "  respirator  mask," 

1  Antoine-Laurent  Lavoisier,  born  in  Paris  in  1743;  died  under  the  guillotine 
in  1794. 


HUMAN    LABOUR ITS    HISTORY    AND    ITS    DOCTRINES 


15 


Seguin  at  first  remained  motionless  ;    then,  for  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  he  raised  a  weight  attached  to  his  feet  (Fig.  5). 


FIG.  4.— Lavoisier  (1743-1794). 

From    these    observations    Lavoisier    drew    the    following 
important  conclusions,  which  cannot  too  often  be  quoted  : 


10 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


"  Observations  of  this  class  lead  to  the  comparison  of 
the  action  of  forces  between  which  there  would  seem  to  be 
no  relation.  One  can  discover,  for  example,  the  weight  in 
pounds  corresponding  to  the  efforts  of  a  man  delivering  a 
speech,  or  a  musician  playing  an  instrument. 

"  One  might  even  estimate  the  mechanical  component 
(ce  quil  y  a  de  mecanique)  in  the  effort  of  the  philosopher 
meditating,  the  man  of  letters  writing,  or  the  musician  com- 
posing. These  efforts,  which  are  regarded  as  being  purely 


FIG.  5. — Lavoisier's  experiment  upon  Seguin. 

mental,  have  in  them  something  physical  and  material,  which 
enables  us,  in  this  respect,  to  compare  them  with  those  of 
the  labourer.  So  it  is  with  a  certain  justice  that  the  French 
language  has  confused,  under  the  common  denomination  of 
travail  (work,  labour),  the  efforts  of  the  mind  with  those  of 
the  body,  the  work  of  the  office  and  the  study  with  the  work 
of  the  hired  labourer."  1 

These  lines,  written  in  1789,  contain  the  whole  physiolog- 
ical doctrine,  in  its  remotest  applications.  It  will  be  seen 
how  fertile  it  is  ;  it  does  not  exclude  mechanical  measure- 
ment ;  on  the  contrary,  it  includes  it,  as  an  element  of  a  higher 
and  completer  truth  :  the  evaluation  of  vital  energy. 

Lavoisier,  (Euvres  completes,  II.,  p.  688  (authorised  edition). 


CHAPTER    II 
THE   ORGANIC   FUNCTIONS   OF   MAN 

IX. — The  question  of  money  is  not  the  only  matter  in 
dispute  between  capital  and  labour.  Human  life  must  be 
safeguarded. 

In  order  to  organise  movement,  bodily  and  mental,  and 
to  avoid,  with  certainty,  irregularity  and  waste,  it  is  there- 
fore essential  to  possess  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  active 
life.  These  laws  have  acquired  an  even  greater  importance 
since  the  events  of  the  war  have  extended  the  domain  to 
which  they  are  applicable.  For  humanity  has  been  crushed 
and  bruised  ;  its  wounds  are  barely  cicatrised  ;  mutilation 
has  reduced  the  social  value  of  millions  of  workers  ;  organic 
defects,  which  we  must  learn  to  detect,  have  been  produced, 
and  moral  sufferings  exist  whose  profound  repercussions  we 
must  learn  to  understand. 

Let  us  get  closer  to  the  heart  of  the  problem.  The  coming 
generations  must  be  healthy  and  vigorous  ;  the  activity  of 
youth  must  be  organised.  The  generations  about  to  pass 
away  must  counsel  youth,  must  guide  it  by  the  light  of  their 
experience  and  their  virtues.  The  duty  of  science  is  therefore 
to  investigate  the  best  conditions  of  life  and  work. 

It  is  unhappily  very  true  that  the  majority  of  our  ills 
are  caused  by  ignorance,  and  often  by  our  weakness  of  will. 
The  capital  of  our  energies  ought  not  to  become  exhausted 
until  the  remotest  period  of  old  age,  if  only  we  understood 
how  to  live  in  a  temperate  and  orderly  fashion.  We  shall  do 
otherwise  at  our  own  cost.  This  is  why  a  knowledge  of  the 
functions  of  the  human  organism  is  the  preface  to  all  physical 
culture,  and  to  all  discipline  in  labour.  It  is  not  a  question 
of  describing  in  detail  the  innumerable  mechanisms  of  which 

17 


18  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

the  organism  is  composed.  The  physician,  like  the  engineer, 
has  merely  to  understand  the  inter-relation  of  the  physio- 
logical functions,  and  their  co-ordination  in  that  finer  harmony 
which  constitutes  health.  The  normal  state  and  the  patho- 
logical condition  ;  the  predispositions  which  exercise  favours 
or  aggravates ;  the  favourable  and  unfavourable  indica- 
tions, and  the  conditions,  of  a  rational  activity— these 
are  the  elements  which  I  shall  endeavour  to  assemble  in 
this  book. 

The  principal  functions  include  digestion,  respiration,  and 
circulation,  which  collaborate  together  in  order  to  form 
reserves  of  energy  ;  movement,  which  expends  and  employs 
this  energy ;  and  thought,  which  is  a  mode  of  movement,  but 
invisible,  and  as  yet  unexplained.  The  solidarity  or  synergy 
of  the  whole  finds  its  outlet  in  the  production  of  energy. 

X.  The  Digestive  Function. — The  digestive  apparatus  is 
represented  by  a  group  of  organs  (Fig.  6),  which  are  repre- 
sented in  diagrammatic  form  in  Fig.  7.  We  see  that  apart 
from  the  duct  known  as  the  oesophagus,  by  means  of  which 
nutriment  passes  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach,  through 
an  average  distance  of  some  eight  inches,  the  whole  of  the 
digestive  organs  occupy  the  lower  portion  of  the  trunk. 
They  are  divided  from  the  upper  portion,  in  which  lie  the 
heart  and  the  lungs,  by  a  thick,  wide,  muscular  membrane, 
a  sort  of  ceiling,  called  the  diaphragm. 

The  different  portions  of  the  digestive  canal,  apart  from 
the  oesophagus  or  gullet,  are  :  the  stomach,  whose  greater 
curvature  rests  upon  the  diaphragm  on  the  left  side,  almost 
vertically  beneath  the  heart,  and  which,  when  greatly  dilated, 
may  incommode  the  left  lung,  and  react  perceptibly  on  the 
central  organ  of  the  circulation  ;  the  long  canal  of  the  small 
intestine,  about  25  feet  in  length  and  1-2  inches  in  diameter, 
divided  into  a  short,  narrow  passage,  the  duodenum  (about 
5  inches  in  length),  the  jejunum,  and  the  ileum;  which  Jatter 
portion  opens  into  the  large  intestine  by  the  ileocaecal  valve. 
The  large  intestine  encircles  the  smaller  ;  it  is  closed  at  its 
right-hand  extremity  by  a  small,  slender  appendix  (the  seat 


ce.s 


FIG.  6. — Principal  Organs  of  the  Human  Body. 

e,  eye  ;  n,  nose  ;  in,  mouth  ;  ea,  ear  ;  s.g.,  sub-maxillary  gland  ;  I,  larynx  ;  /.».,  jugular  vein  ; 
c.a.r.,  c.a.L,  right  and  left  hand  carotid  arteries ;  s.c.a.r.,  s.c.n.L,  right  and  left  sub-clayian 
arteries;  tr.,  tfacheal  artery;  br.c.t..  brachio-oephalic  trunk;  a,  aorta;  Th.c.,  thoracic  cavity  ; 
R  1.,  L.I.,  right  and  left  lung  ;  H,  heart ;  L,  liver  ;  5,  stomach  ;  Sp.,  spleen;  D,  diaphragm  ; 
oes.,  oesophagus  ;  r,  rib  ;  g.b.,  gall-bladder  ;  Co.,  colon;  s.i.,  small  intestine  ;  cae.,  caecum; 
app.,  appendix;  bl.,  bladder;  L.I.,  large  intestine. 


20 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


.Respiratory  Tract 


Uvula 


•- — -~  Spinal  Column 


Oesophagus 


of  the  well-known  appendicitis)  supposed  by  Metchnikofl  * 
to  be  a  useless  organ,  which  will  continue  to  atrophy  until 
no  trace  of  it  remains,  Nature  suppressing  everything  that 

has  not  a  deter- 
mined function,  for 
she  aims  at  economy 
of  material.  To  the 
left  the  intestinal 
canal  becomes  al- 
most vertical  and 
rectilinear,  whence 
the  name  of  rectum 
.Spleen  given  to  this  des- 

jL- Greater  Curt«U/na      ceiicling        portion, 

which  finds  its  out- 
let in  the  anus. 

A  wade  mem- 
brane, consisting 
of  two  leaves  or 
folds,  one  of  which 
slides  over  the 
other,  envelopes 
the  whole  digestive 
system ;  this  is  the 
peritoneum.  The 

movement  of  the  stomach  and  the  intestines  occurs, 
therefore,  without  friction;  it  is  free,  but,  except  in  cases 
of  serious  falls  or  violent  efforts,  it  is  controlled,  and  is 
safeguarded  against  shocks.  The  aliments  absorbed  make 
their  way  through  a  canal  with  muscular  walls,  tough 
and  elastic,  which  are  animated  by  progressive  con- 
tractions which  travel  toward  the  anus.  This  peristalsis 
is  very  rapid  during  the  act  of  swallowing ;  it  is  slow 
in  the  stomach,  where  the  food  is  allowed  to  remain  for 
the  necessary  length  of  time  ;  it  is  more  rapid  in  the  small 
intestine,  but  occurs  less  frequently  and  with  greater  violence 

1  The  great  Russian  scientist,  assistant-director  of  the  Pasteur  Institute,  Paris 
(1845-1916). 


Pancreas 


lleum 


'•-  Rectum 


FIG.  7. — Diagram  of  the  Digestive  System. 


THE  ORGANIC  FUNCTIONS  OF  MAN  21 

in  the  large  intestine.  By  adding  to  the  food  a  little  sub- 
nitrate  of  bismuth  the  digestive  canal  may  be  rendered  visible 
by  means  of  the  X-rays,  when  its  movements  may  be  studied 
by  means  of  radio-chrono-photography  l ;  it  is  then  seen  that 
the  passage  of  food  through  the  oesophagus  alone  occupies 
six  seconds,2  but  it  remains  in  the  gastro-intestinal  organs  for 
from  one  to  several  hours. 

During  these  different  stages  are  effected  the  chemical 
operations  of  digestion,  under  the  action  of  the  juices  secreted 
by  the  internal  mucous  membrane  of  the  walls  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  aided  by  the  oscillatory  movements  of  the 
organs  themselves,  and  still  more  by  the  fluid  secretions 
poured  into  them,  in  the  region  of  the  duodenum,  by  the 
special  glands  attached  to  the  digestive  canal  :  the  liver, 
situated  to  the  right  of  the  stomach,  furnishes  the  biliary 
secretion,  a  potent  factor  in  the  transformation  of  fats  and 
in  antitoxic  processes  ;  while  into  the  duodenum  also,  and  at 
almost  the  same  point,  flows  the  pancreatic  juice,  whose 
chemical  action  upon  alimentary  substances  is  varied  and 
energetic. 

It  is  enough  to  mention  these  products  of  the  abdominal 
factory,  together  with  the  secretion  of  the  salivary  glands,  to 
give  an  idea  of  the  various  stages  and  the  total  duration  of 
the  phenomenon  of  digestion. 

Nothing  should  disturb  or  impede  the  digestive  process, 
either  in  its  internal  conditions,  which  are  dependent  upon 
the  choice  and  the  quantity  of  the  foodstuffs  taken,  or  in  its 
external  conditions,  which  are  normally  realised  by  protection 
against  cold  and  fatigue. 

But  an  interesting  discovery,  due  to  the  Bussian  scientist 
Pavloff,  throws  upon  this  collection  of  facts  the  light  of  a 
doctrine  which  might  almost  be  called  philosophical.  Pavloff 
states  that  the  nature  of  the  gastric  juice  is  always  adapted  to 
the  nature  of  the  food  to  be  digested.  The  mere  sight  of  this  food, 
or  the  imaginary  conception  of  it,  produces  the  same  result,  and 

1  J.  Carvallo,  Archivio  du  Fisiologia  (Compte  rendu  du  Congres  de  Heidelberg 
1907,  Vol.  V.,  p.  97,  1908). 

2Meltzer,  Centralb  f.  Med.  WissenscL,  pp.  1-4,  1883. 


22  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

the  psychic  secretion  is  more  active  and  abundant  than  the 
secretion  produced  by  the  direct  contact  of  the  substance. 

The  old  saying  as  to  food  "  making  one's  mouth  water  " 
is  therefore  not  a  nonsensical  adage  ;  the  entire  culinary 
art,  of  sauces,  and  seasonings,  and  the  preparation  of  food  in 
general,  tends  to  provoke  these  psychical  interventions,  which 
stimulate  the  appetite  and  facilitate  the  work  of  digestion. 
To  eat  one's  food  "  too  quickly  to  get  the  taste  of  it,"  is  a 
fault  which  is  known  as  tachyphagia.  Our  manifold  occupa- 
tions have  created  it,  to  the  detriment  of  our  health.  One 
should  take  one's  time  to  masticate  one's  food  and  enjoy  its 
flavour.  It  is  time  usefully  employed. 

When  the  whole  series  of .  phenomena  which  commence 
with  the  work  of  the  teeth  (mastication)  and  are  terminated 
by  the  work  of  the  intestines  is  completed,  when  all  the  useful 
and  essential  portion  of  the  food  taken  has  been  extracted  and 
the  residue  evacuated,  a  complex  product  is  formed  :  the 
chyle,  which  has  a  milky  appearance  and  contains  most  of  the 
fatty  material  derived  from  the  meal.  Numbers  of  little  suckers 
or  filters,  the  villi  and  lacteals,  pump  it  through  the  intestinal 
wall.  They  conduct  it,  through  the  thoracic  duct,  to  the 
blood,  which  carries  the  fatty  material  to  all  parts  of  the 
body.  The  excess  is  stored  up  eventually  in  the  cells  of  adi- 
pose tissue.  Meanwhile,  the  saccharine  and  albuminous 
materials  have  been  absorbed  more  directly  into  the  blood 
in  the  intestinal  wall,  by  which  they  are  carried  to  the  liver, 
the  sugars  being  there  deposited  in  the  form  of  glycogen 
as  a  reserve  of  carbohydrate  material.  The  albuminous 
materials — now  in  the  form  of  amino-acids — are  taken  to  the 
various  cells  of  the  body,  and  used  in  rebuilding  their  substance. 
The  blood  will  carry  off  the  products  of  combustion  :  urea, 
water,  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  various  more  or  less  toxic 
bodies.  These  are  carried  in  the  blood  to  the  kidneys,  which 
separate  some  of  them,  and  to  the  lungs,  which  expel  the 
carbonic  acid  gas.  The  urine  then  fills  the  bladder,  and  is 
finally  eliminated. 

We  must  avoid  retarding  the  renal  purification  of  the 
blood,  for  this  cleanses  the  organism  ;  the  use  of  fresh, 


THE    ORGANIC    FUNCTIONS    OF    MAN  23 

wholesome  water  as  a  beverage  admirably  fulfils  this  service. 
Neither  must  we  embarrass  the  stomach  by  substances  which 
it  could  not  easily  digest,  or  which  irritate  it.  Let  us  beware 
of  abusing  the  refined  cookery  to  which  our  palates  are  accus- 
tomed ;  let  us  protect  the  stomach  against  alcohol  and  spirit- 
uous liquors.  Thus  the  normal  cycle  of  the  phenomena  of 
digestion  will  be  rendered  possible.1 

XI.  The  Respiratory  Function. — We  must  now  consider 
another  cycle  ;  one  which  is  almost  invisible,  but  no  less 
indispensable  to  life.  This  is  the  cycle  of  the  atmospheric 
oxygen,  a  gas  whose  function  it  is  to  burn  all  combustible 
matters,  and  whose  consumption  in  the  heart  of  the  body- 
cells  is  regulated  by  the  supply  of  aliment.  Oxygen  exists 
in  the  air  which  we  breathe  in  the  proportion  of  21  parts  to 
79  of  nitrogen  ;  that  is,  it  forms  about  one-fifth  part  of  the 
volume  of  the  air  inbreathed.  It  enters  the  lungs  by  passing 
through  the  nasal  cavity,  the  mouth,  the  pharynx,  the  larynx, 
the  windpipe,  and  the  bronchial  tubes  (Fig.  6)  ;  it  is  dis- 
tributed among  an  enormous  number  (about  two  thousand 
millions)  of  pulmonary  vesicles,  like  so  many  microscopic 
pockets  ;  and  in  these  it  finds  the  fine  ramifications  of  the 
blood-vessels.  The  membrane  interposed  between  the  blood 
and  the  air  is  no  more  than  a  hundredth  part  of  a  millimetre 
in  thickness  (1-2500  inch).  The  oxygen,  by  virtue  of  its  proper 
tension,  passes  through  the  membrane  and  fixes  itself  in  the 
blood,  which  thus  becomes  its  universal  vehicle,  or,  in  the 
words  of  Claude  Bernard,  "  its  internal  environment." 
Respiration  effects  the  gaseous  exchange  by  which  the  blood 
saturates  itself  with  oxygen  and  rejects  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  derived  from  cellular  combustion.  It  comprises  the 
two  phases  of  inspiration  and  expiration,  which  are  manifested 
by  the  dilatation  of  the  lungs  and  the  whole  thorax  during  a 
first  period  of  time,  and  the  cessation  of  this  dilatation  during 
the  second  period,  which  is  usually  longer  than  the  first. 

1  J.  P.  Pavloff,  Le  Travail  des  glandes  digestives,  passim ;  Paris,  1901 ; — A.  F. 
Hornborg,  Skand.  Arch.  f.  physiol.,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  209,  1904;  this  writer  verifies 
Pavloff's  laws  relating  to  the  digestive  system  of  man. — For  details  as  to  earth- 
eating  tribes,  see  Le  Moteur  Humain,  p.  180. 


24  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

In  order  that  the  thoracic  cavity  may  thus  increase  its 
volume,  the  diaphragm  sinks  downward,  pressing  on  the 
stomach,  and  the  ribs,  rotating  upon  their  articulations,  are 
raised  and  expanded.  The  result  is  an  increase  of  the  vertical, 
lateral,  and  antero-posterior  diameters  of  the  thorax,  due 
to  the  combined  and  regulated  action  of  the  respiratory 
muscles.  The  amplification  due  to  the  movements  of  the 
ribs  is  greater  than  that  caused  by  the  diaphragm, .the  ratio 
being  about  two  to  one.  This  is  particularly  marked  in 
women,  partly  on  account  of  the  organs  of  generation,  and 
partly  on  account  of  the  whims  of  fashion — that  is,  corsets. 
In  the  female  savage  the  movements  of  the  diaphragm  are 
much  more  extensive.  At  each  inspiration  the  adult  man 
draws  half  a  litre  of  air  (-88  of  a  pint)  into  his  lungs,  and  he 
renews  it,  while  at  rest,  some  15  or  16  times  per  minute. 
Thus  at  least  ten  cubic  metres  (more  than  two  thousand  gallons) 
of  air  are  daily  brought  into  contact  with  the  blood  in  circula- 
tion. When  continuous  work  is  being  done,  whether  in  the 
performance  of  manual  labour  or  in  playing  games,  the 
consumption  of  oxygen  and  the  activity  of  the  entire  respira- 
tory apparatus  is  increased,  and  the  ventilation  of  the  lungs 
attains  the  rate  of  30  to  50  respirations  per  minute,  displacing 
a  volume  of  air  two  or  three  times  as  great  as  before.  There 
is  an  excitation  of  the  nervous  centres  of  the  spinal  cord 
in  the  region  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  due  to  the  arrival  of 
blood  rich  in  carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen  intermixed.1 

Under  these  conditions  of  activity  the  thoracic  movements 
and  the  pulmonary  passages  must  be  thoroughly  free.  Certain 
pathological  conditions  affect  the  muscles  entrusted  with 
these  movements,  or  limit  the  capacity  of  the  lungs  (paralysis, 
pleurisy,  pneumonia)  ;  they  give  rise  to  early  or  immediate 
fatigue.  Tight  clothing  must  be  avoided,  as  well  as  faulty 
attitudes  of  the  body. 

Such  conditions  as  these  produce  a  very  irregular  ventila- 
tion of  the  lungs  during  the  performance  of  work  ;  the  rhythm 
of  respiration  will  be  rapid,  and  the  respiration  itself  will  be 
superficial.  In  such  a  case  the  gaseous  exchanges  are  in- 

1  C.  Foa,  Archivio  di  Fisiologia,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  536,  1908-9. 


THE    ORGANIC    FUNCTIONS    OF    MAN  25 

sufficient  :  a  condition  known  as  dyspnoea.  It  occurs  during 
violent  exercise  (bicycling,  mountain-climbing),  as  the  result 
of  anaemia,  or  in  an  atmosphere  poor  in  oxygen  or  rich  in 
carbon  dioxide.  This  last  factor  is  one  which  should  par- 
ticularly be  avoided  ;  the  dyspnoea  due  to  carbonic  acid  gas 
is  certain  to  occur  if  the  proportion  of  gas  rises  to  one-tenth 
of  the  volume  of  the  air  inbreathed.  But  its  toxic  effects  are 
perceptible  to  the  nerve-centres  when  the  ratio  is  much 
smaller  ;  they  are  attributed,1  but.  I  believe,  without  reliable 
proof,  to  the  presence  of  traces  of  ammonia  in  the  air  expired, 
or  even  to  certain  alkaloid  products.  Biown-Sequard  and 
d'Arsonval  reported  the  presence  of  these  products,  which 
Weichardt  and  Strcede  describe  as  kenotoxins.2  Despite  the 
investigations  of  these  authorities,  however,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  in  a  confined  environment,  in  which  healthv 
persons  remain  for  any  length  of  time,  the  only  factors  to  be 
regarded  as  dangerous  are  heat  and  humidity.  This  is  proved 
by  the  fact  that  if,  in  such  an  environment,  one  breathes 
through  a  tube  communicating  with  a  dry,  cool  air-supply, 
one  is  none  the  less  incommoded;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
if  the  imprisoned  air  be  breathed  through  a  tube  by  a  person 
outside  the  chamber,  he  feels  no  inconvenience.3  Hence  it 
is  an  indispensable  precaution  to  ventilate  workshops,  dwelling- 
houses,  barracks,  etc.,  and  to  ensure  the  passage  of  a  current 
of  fresh  air  through  them.  Respiration  will  then  replenish 
the  supply  of  oxygen  to  the  circulation  of  the  lungs  and 
diminish  the  depressing  effect  of  moist  heat. 

XII.  The  Circulation. — The  blood  is  renewed  in  every 
part  of  the  body,  thanks  to  the  movement  impressed  upon 
it  by  the  heart,  and  its  renewal  maintains  the  vitality  of  the 
tissues.  Every  cubic  millimetre  of  blood  contains  about 

'Formanek,  Arch.  /.  Hygiene,  Vol.  XXXVIII.,  p.  1,  1900; — Gardenghi, 
Giornale  d.  R.  Soc.  Hal.  d'  Igiene,  Vol.  XXVI.,  1904. 

2  Brown-Sequard  and  d'Arsonva),  Ccmptes  rendus  Acad.  Sciences,  Vol.  CVL, 
pp.  106,  165;  Vol.  CVIIL,  p.  267,  1888-9 ;— Weichardt,   Ueber  Ermudungstcfte, 
2nd   ed.,   Stuttgart,    1912 ;— Stroede,   Zeitsch  /.   Schulgcs-und-heitspfle^e,  Vol. 
XXVL,  p.  735,  1913. 

3  L.  Hill  and  Flack,  Bull.  mens.  office  intern.  Hyg.  Pull.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  776, 
1915. 


26  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


FIG.  8.— The  Circulatory  System. 

H,  heart ;  D,  diaphragm  ;  a.r.,  a.L,  right  and  left  auricles  ;  V.r.,  right  ventricle  ;  A,  aorta : 
('.a.,  carotid  arteries  ;  ~s.c.a.r.,  right  subclavian  artery  :  r  a.,  renal  artery  ;  I. a.,  iliac  arteries  ; 
P.a.,  pulmonary  artery  ;  s.v.c.,  in.v.c.,  superior  and  inferior  venae  cavae  ;  i.v.,  iliac  veins; 
i./.r.,  e.j.v.,  internal  and  external  jugular  veins  ;  th.d.,  thoracic  duct. 


THE  ORGANIC  FUNCTIONS  OF  MAN 


27 


five  millions  of  red  corpuscles,  albuminous  and  ferruginous 
elements,  of  which  the  base  is  haemoglobin,  and  we  know  that 
oxygen  readily  combines  with  this  substance,  which  thus 
becomes  a  reserve  of  energy. 

From  the  lungs,  where  it  is  freed  from  its  carbonic  acid 
gas,  and  enriched  with  oxygen,  the  blood  flows  toward  the 
left-hand  side  of  the  heart  through  the- pulmonary  veins  (Fig.  9), 


Pulmonary- 
Artery 


Pulmonary 
,     l/eins 


Body 
FIG.  9. — Diagram  of  the  Circulatory  System. 

where  it  fills  the  left  auricle.  But  this  contracts,  driving  it 
into  the  left  ventricle,  while  the  communicating  valve,  the 
mitral  valve,  closes.  A  powerful  contraction  of  this  left 
ventricle  drives  the  blood  into  the  great  artery  known  as  the 
aorta,  with  its  numerous  branches  :  carotids,  jugulars,  renal 
and  iliac  arteries,  etc.  (Fig.  8).  This  is  the  irrigating  system 
by  which  all  our  organs,  whether  their  output  be  physical 
force  or  thought,  are  replenished.  The  blood  diffuses  its 
nutritive  principles  through  them,  and  carries  off  the  waste 


28  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

products  of  vital  combustion.  Being  then  vitiated,  with  its 
haemoglobin  partially  de-oxidised,  the  blood  returns  to  the 
heart  by  the  venae  cauae.  It  is  received  by  the  right  auricle, 
which  immediately  urges  it  into  the  right  ventricle,  and  from 
this  it  proceeds  to  the  lungs,  for  a  fresh  purification.  There 
is  therefore  a  third  cycle,  that  of  the  blood,  to  add  to  the  cycles 
of  respiration  and  digestion.  They  ensure  an  incessant  move- 
ment of  material  through  the  body,  and  parallel  to  this,  a 
movement  of  energy.  The  normal  condition  requires  that 
this  stream  of  material  shall  be  as  pure  and  regular  as  possible  ; 
that  it  shall  make  up  for  losses  and  re-establish  the  pitch  or 
level.  If  this  be  so  neither  the  mass  nor  the  power  of  the 
human  machine  varies  ;  the  man  is  in  a  state  of  equilibrium. 

The  function  of  the  heart  is  all-important  in  this  process. 
By  its  contraction  01  systole  it  acts  as  a  force-pump,  and, 
between  its  contractions,  it  expands  its  cavities  and  sucks 
in  the  blood  returning  by  way  of  the  lungs  or  the  venae  cavae  ; 
and  this  dilatation  is  known  as  the  diastole.  In  one  of  its 
cycles  it  accomplishes  a  good  portion  of  the  profound  scaveng- 
ing which  the  organism  undergoes. 

The  systole  of  the  two  auricles  take  place  simultaneously, 
and  so  with  the  systole  of  the  two  ventricles,  the  latter  being 
more  marked  and  more  protracted  than  the  former.  The 
phases  of  the  cardiac  cycle,  as  regards  their  duration,  are 
much  as  follows  : 

Auriculai  systole  ..  ..  18  per  cent. 

Ventriculai  systole  . .  . .  45  per  cent. 

General  diastole  . .  . .  37  per  cent. 

Complete  cycle       . .  . .  . .  100 

[The  ventricle  is  the  more  important  partner  in  this  associa- 
tion. When  beating  at  seventy-two  per  minute,  its  rhythm 
may  be  expressed  thus  : — 

Ventricular  svstole        .  .     0-3  second  )  ^ 

,T     .  .  i-    ;  i  n  -  j    0-8  second. 

Ventricular  diastole      .  .     O-o  second  ) 

Thus,  in  twenty-four  hours  the  ventricle  works  for  nine 
hours  and  rests  for  fifteen.  If  we  remember  that  "  work  " 
in  human  occupations  is  not  confined  to  the  hours  of  labour, 


THE    ORGANIC    FUNCTIONS    OF   MAN  29 

but  that  energy  must  necessarily  be  expended  also  outside 
the  factory  gates,  we  see  that  Nature  has  arranged  matters 
very  much  upon  the  principle  of  an  eight  hours  working  day. 
(Ed.)] 

It  is  the  contraction  of  the  ventricles  which  may  be  per- 
ceived by  the  touch,  about  the  fifth  intercostal  space  on  the 
left-hand  side  ;  this  contraction  constitutes  the  heart-impulse;  it 
may  even  be  seen,  in  thin  subjects,  raising  the  wall  of  the  chest 
in  the  region  indicated,  usually  beneath  the  nipple.  The 
clinician,  who  observes  the  subject  from  the  outside,  simply 
notes  that  the  duration  of  the  heart-beat  represents  a  third  or 
a  fourth  of  the  total  period  ;  so  that  the  ratio  of  the  general 
diastole  to  the  systole  is  1  :  2  or  1:3.  Or  we  may  write  the 
formula 

—   =   2-50  approx. 

o 

This  ratio  is  modified  by  fatigue  ;    it  tends  to  diminish. 

The  weight  of  an  adult  heart  is  about  250  grammes  (-55  Ib. 
avoirdupois),  and  its  rate  of  pulsation,  during  repose,  is  65 
to  70  per  minute,  a  rate  which  increases  progressively  under 
the  influence  of  muscular  activity.  The  figure  is  78  to  80 
in  women,  and  80  to  90  in  children. 

The  movement  which  the  contractions  of  the  heart  impart 
to  the  mass  of  the  blood  is  propagated  along  the  arteries,  where 
it  is  revealed  by  a  pulsation  of  the  walls  of  these  vessels.  It 
thus  produces  the  pulse.  If  an  artery  be  slightly  compressed 
against  an  adjacent  bone  the  beats  of  the  pulse  become  plainly 
perceptible.  The  pulse  is  particularly  well  defined  in  the 
radial,  temporal,  and  femoral  arteries  ;  it  may  be  felt  best  of 
all  in  the  first  of  these. 

The  sounds  produced  by  the  heart  are  louder  if  the  organ 
is  hypertrophied,  and  weaker  if  it  is  the  seat  of  degeneration. 
Auscultation  also  enables  us,  in  cases  of  imperfect  functioning 
of  the  valves,  or  valvular  insufficiency  (notably  mitral  in- 
sufficiency) to  detect  a  murmur  or  souffle. 

The  function  of  the  blood  is  essentially  vital.  Anything 
that  arrests  or  impedes  its  flow,  any  compression  of  the 
channels  of  circulation,  diminishes  the  nervous  and  muscular 


30  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

forces,  and  may,  in  a  relatively  short  period  of  time,  endanger 
life  itself. 

An  old  experiment  performed  by  Bishop  Stenon  l  demon- 
strates this  most  important  fact.  He  ligatured  the  great 
artery  which  supplies  the  hind  legs  of  the  dog.  Hardly  had 
a  few  minutes  elapsed,  when  all  power  of  locomotion  dis- 
appeared ;  the  legs  were  rigid.  The  ligature  was  then  removed, 
and  the  power  of  movement  returned  to  the  limbs.  The 
nervous  centres  are  even  more  sensitive  to  variations  of  the 
blood-supply.  While  compression  of  the  fore-arm  will  leave 
the  fingers  active  even  after  the  lapse  of  half  an  hour,  it  is 
enough  to  press  for  15  to  20  seconds  on  the  carotid  arteries 
which  lead  to  the  brain,  and  consciousness  disappears. 

•  The  state  of  the  circulation  should  always  be  made  the 
object  of  a  serious  examination,  particularly  with  reference 
to  violent  exercise  in  youth,  or  work  performed  by  men  who 
have  been  mutilated,  by  accident,  or  war-wounds,  or  operation. 

XIII.  Functions  of  Relation. — Movement. — But  the 
highest  function  of  man  is  movement.  To  be  sure,  the  lower 
animals  are  similarly  endowed  with  the  power  of  movement ; 
indeed  their  movements  display  an  incomparable  agility 
and  certainty.  Still,  their  actions  are  purely  instinctive ; 
I  mean  that  the  precision  of  these  actions  is  complete  or 
definitive.  They  are  automatic,  by  virtue  of  heredity  ;  and 
as  a  rule  they  are  not  subject  to  improvement. 

Man,  on  the  contrary,  calculates  his  results ;  he  trains 
and  disciplines  his  movements,  harmonising  them  in  view 
of  an  end  which  he  understands  ;  he  is  conscious  of  it.  In 
him  consciousness  is  never  completely  absent,  even  in  the 
case  of  movements  which  are  apparently  automatic,  such  as 
walking  ;  consciousness  corrects  these  movements  as  required. 

The  organs'  of  movement  comprise  the  bones,  which  make 
up  the  skeleton,  and  the  muscles,  which  are  as  a  whole  assembled 
in  articulated  systems,  levers  which  accomplish  all  the  motor 
actions  of  animal  life. 

The  energy  which  animates  them  is  released  by  excitations 

1  Nicolas  Stenon,  Danish  anatomist,  promoted  to  a  bishopric  (1631-1687). 


THE  ORGANIC  FUNCTIONS  OF  MAN  31 

of  the  nervous  system,  which,  assisted  by  the  senses,  above 
all  by  the  senses  of  sight  and  touch,  co-ordinate  and  direct  the 
muscular  contractions. 

It  must  immediately  be  noted  that  the  active  organs 
are  subject  to  a  physiological  law  of  the  greatest  importance, 
which  I  will  call  the  law  of  functional  hegemony.  This  ensures 
that  every  organ  which  is  capable  of  contraction  or  of  per- 
forming work  may  be  the  seat  of  nutritive  and  respiratory 
exchanges  which  are  more  intense  than  those  occurring  in 
any  other  part  of  the  body.  To  the  gland  producing  its 
secretion,  the  muscle  contracting,  the  nerve-cell  vibrating 
in  response  to  sensation,  an  abundant  flow  sets  in  of  the 
fluids  of  the  organism,  the  blood  and  lymph  ;  the  irrigation 
of  contracted  muscles,  for  example,  increases  to  four  or  five 
times  its  normal  volume  ;  through  these  organs,  in  the  space  of 
one  minute,  passes  a  weight  of  blood  equal  to  about  85  per 
cent,  of  their  own  weight.1  The  nervous  elements  are  stimu- 
lated, and  produce  the  condition  of  tonicity.  A  silent  labour 
is  accomplished  in  the  living  cell  or  fibre,  which  makes  possible, 
and  develops,  the  function  itself. 

This  excess  of  life  at  one  point  leads  to  an  abatement  else- 
where ;  it  is,  above  all,  between  the  digestive  organs  and  the 
organs  of  movement  that  the  law  of  functional  hegemony 
establishes  that  inequality  so  necessary  to  the  performance  of 
physiological  work. 

9 

XIV.  The  Osseous  System . — The  skeleton  constitutes  the 
solid  framework  of  the  body  ;  the  resistance  of  the  bones 
is  at  least  double  that  of  pine-wood  ;  it  increases  until  the 
threshold  of  old  age  is  reached,  but  to  a  greater  extent  in 
man  than  in  woman,  for  the  bony  tissue  of  the  man  is  denser 
and  his  skeleton  more  massive.  However,  this  resistance  is 
modified  by  the  mode  of  life  and  the  kind  of  nutriment 
absorbed.  Thus  the  bones  of  race-horses  are  denser  than 
those  of  grass-fed  horses.  On  the  other  hand,  we  encounter 
cases  of  a  wholly  peculiar  and  inherited  fragility  of  the 

1  Chauveau  and  Kaufmann,  Comptes  rendus  Acad.  Sciences,  Vol.  CIV.,  p.  1352. 

1887. 


32 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


— ^    Frontal 


Malar 

Upper  Maxillary 


Acromion  -- 
Scapula--- 


. Parietal 

Temporal 

_  . Lower  Maxillary 

---Cervical  Vertebra 

.  .  .   Clavicle 

Sternum 

Humerus 


Olecranon 

-Ulna 

Radius 

Carpus 

--    Metacarpus 
Phalanges 

Femur 


Phalanges^ 


---  Tarsus 
Metatarsus 


FIG.  10. — General  PlarTof  the  Human  Skeleton. 

skeleton  ;  this  is  known  as  osteopsathyrosis  ;  it  is  often  betrayed 
by  fractures  of  the  femur  and  the  humerus.1 

1  Davenport  and  Conard,  Proceed.  Nat.  Acad.  Sciences,  Vol.  I.,  p.  537,  1915; 
— Washington,  Hereditary  Fragility  of  Bone  (En}].  No.  14  of  the  Eugenics  Record 
Office,  1915). 


THE  ORGANIC  FUNCTIONS  OF  MAN  33 

Lastly,  certain  affections  have  their  seat  in  the  bony  sub- 
stance, whose  solidity  is  thereby  diminished. 

It  is  from  the  food,  conveyed  by  the  blood,  that  the  skeleton 
derives  its  formative  elements,  of  which  by  far  the  most 
important  are  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The  absence 
of  mineral  salts  from  the  food,  or  mineral  inanition,  results  in 
the  softening  and  malformation  of  the  bones,  modifies  their 
structure,  and,  in  early  youth,  retards  the  progress  of  ossifica- 
tion.1 The  proportion  of  phosphate  is  diminished  by  25  to 
30  per  cent,  in  infantile  osteomalacia,  and  even  further  in 
rickets.2 

Mineral  inanition,  if  prolonged,  is  followed  by  serious 
nervous  symptoms  (Forster). 

The  natural  arrangement  of  the  various  component  portions 
of  the  skeleton  is  represented  in  Fig.  10.  The  different 
portions  of  the  skeleton  are  all  articulated,  or  jointed  ;  the 
surfaces  which  come  into  contact  in  the  articulations  are 
covered  with  cartilage,  a  smooth,  elastic  substance  which 
reduces  friction  ;  the  heads  of  the  articulations  are  in  many 
cases  enclosed  in  a  capsule  which  contains  synovia,  a  viscous 
and  alkaline  fluid  which  lubricates  the  surfaces  of  the  articula- 
tions (example,  the  knee).  The  system  of  articulations  is 
so  devised  throughout  as  to  lend  itself  to  all  the  requirements 
of  movement. 

XV.  The  Muscular  System. — It  is  the  muscles,  however, 
which  finally  determine  the  positions  of  the  osseous  elements, 
while  their  fleshy  masses  give  the  human  body  its  true  plastic 
form.  Before  all,  the  muscles  are  the  agents  of  movement, 
the  motive  elements  of  the  body. 

A  muscle  is  a  collection  of  elastic  fibres,  tightly  enclosed 
within  a  thin,  transparent  envelope,  and  capable  of  pro- 
gressive contraction.  To  the  two  ends  of  the  muscle  adhere 
two  strong,  coherent  laminae  or  thongs  :  the  tendons.  A 

iKonig.  Landw.  Jahrb.,  p.  421,  1874 ;— H.  Weiske,  Zeit.  /.  Biol.,  Vol.  VII., 
pp.  179  and  333;  Vol.  X.,p.  410,  1873-4  ;^T.  Forster,  ibid.,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  464, 
1875. 

2H.  Brubacher,  Zeit.  f.  Biol,  Vol.  XXVIIL,  p.  517,  1890 ;— Gallinard  and 
Konig,  C.B.  Acad.  Sc.,  Vol.  CXL.,  p.  1,332,  1905. 
D 


34  THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

familiar  example  of  these  terminal  attachments  is  the  Achilles 
tendon  ;  it  lies  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  calf,  and  is  affixed 
to  the  bone  of  the  heel,  or  calcaneum. 

According  to  the  portion  of  the  body  to  be  moved,  and 
its  organic  adaptation,  the  muscles  and  tendons  follow  the 
same  law  of  development  as  the  skeleton,1  and  the  osso- 
tendinous  insertions  acquire  a  remarkable  strength,  which 
renders  possible  the  exertion  of  great  muscular  force. 

The  varying  forms  and  arrangements  displayed  by  the 
muscles  in  the  different  parts  of  the  body  are  shown  in  Fig.  11. 
Their  action,  which  is  always  conjoined,  results  in  the  produc- 
tion either  of  sustained  efforts,  which  do  not  involve  movement, 
but  may  be  called  static,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  of  more  or 
less  rapid  movements,  and  the  speedy  performance  of  work. 
This  will  be  more  fully  explained  later  on. 

The  muscular  system  represents  about  40  per  cent,  of  the 
mass  of  the  body,  and  it  is  in  it  that  nutrition  operates  actively, 
with  an  intensity  which  is  increased  by  work,  and  by  external 
cold.  One  might  almost  say  that  it  absorbs  all  the  energy 
of  the  aliments  consumed,  and  that  the  quantity  of  the  latter 
should  accordingly  be  regulated  by  the  importance  of  the 
muscular  system.  Persons  whose  muscles  are  small,  and 
persons  suffering  from  obesity,  have  less  occasion  than  others 
to  consume  large  quantities  of  nutriment. 

XVI.  The  Nervous  System. — The  co-ordination,  which 
is  almost  invariably  perfect,  of  the  muscular  contractions, 
is  the  work  of  the  nervous  system,  the  higher  centres  of  which 
are  the  spinal  cord,  the  bulb  or  medulla  oblongata,  the  cerebellum 
and,  most  important  of  all,  the  brain  proper.  It  fulfils  its 
delicate  functions  in  a  wonderful  manner,  being  at  the  same 
time  a  sensory  system  and  a  motor  system,  receiving  sensations 
and  sending  forth  orders  relating  to  movement. 

The  entire  surface  of  the  body,  the  skin,  which  is  the  seat 
of  the  sense  of  touch,  the  retina,  which  receives  impressions 
of  luminosity,  the  olfactory  mucous  membrane,  which  is  the 

1  See  Le  Moteur  Humain  for  details  of  the  very  interesting  influence  of  adapta- 
tion upon  the  organs  of  force  and  movement. 


THE    ORGANIC    FUNCTIONS    OF    MAN 


35 


seat  of  the  sense  of  smell,    the   mucous  membrane   of  the 
tongue,  in  which  the  sense  of  taste  is  localised,  and  finally  the 


Temporal  —  -  • 

Massetei 

SpleniuS 
Sterno-deido  mastoid 
Trapezius 


JnFraspinatus 

Rhomboideus  -•  - | 

Latissimus  dorsi 

Obliquus  externus 


Abductor  longus 
&  Extensor  brevis 
Extensor  digiti 

Radial  Extensors 
Ulnar  Extensors 
Anconeus 

Su  pin  a  tor  Radii 


x  Triceps  brachih 
'Pectoralis  major 

ajor 
Intercostals 

*"  Rectus  Abdom  inis 
•  -Tensor  fasciae  latae 
Rectus  Femoris 
•  l/astus  externus 

1/astuS  internu.$ 

Gracilis 
Semitendinosus  ' 


Tibialis  anticus 
Soleus 


Achilles  tendon 
Extensor longt 
digitorum 

Malleolus- 
Calcaneum 


FIG.  11. — General  Arrangement  of  the  Muscles  of  the  Human  Body. 

membrane  of  the  inner  ear,  the  cochlea,  which  vibrates 
under  the  impact  of  sound-waves,  all  receive  from  the  nervous 
centres  a  number  of  sensitive  fibres,  which  collect  the  multi- 


36  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

tudinous  impressions  to  which  they  are  subject.  These 
sensitive  fibres  exist  even  in  the  depth  of  the  viscera  (heart, 
stomach)  and  the  muscles,  and  in  the  joints  and  tendons, 
and  it  is  by  their  means  that  the  brain  receives  uninterrupted 
messages  as  to  the  condition  of  the  organism.  Similarly, 
there  are  also  motor  fibres,  which,  in  the  mixed  nerves,  are 
associated  with  the  first  kind.  These  mixed  nerves  are  in 
a  great  majority. 

The  nervous  element  is  known  as  a  neuron  :  it  is  a  cell 
with  numerous  prolongations,  so  constituted  as  to  conduct  a 
sensory  impression  or  a  motor  impulse.  Hence  there  are 
sensory  neurons  and  motor  neurons,  consisting,  probably, 
of  fine  granules  bathed  in  a  viscous  matter,  and  set  in  motion 
by  all  manner  of  influences.1  The  neurons,  whose  termina- 
tions are  in  a  relation  of  contiguity,  form  a  chain  known  as  a 
reflex  arc,  from  that  which  receives  the  impression  to  that 
which  reacts  to  a  motor  impulse.  Let  us  consider  the  case 
of  a  person  who  unexpectedly  touches  a  heated  body  ;  the 
sensory  filaments  (Fig.  12),  irritated  by  the  scorching  of 
the  skin,  transmit  a  special  vibration  to  the  motor  neuron, 
which  causes  the  muscle  to  contract. 

Thus,  by  an  actual  reflexion  of  the  sensation  produced  in 
one  nerve-cell,  this  sensation  is  followed  by  movement, 
the  more  swiftly  as  the  sensation  is  keener  and  the  reflex 
arc  shorter.  Generally  speaking,  nervous  impulses  are  con- 
veyed at  the  rate  of  about  120  metres  per  second.  We  know, 
moreover,  that  these  impulses  display  a  preference  for  accus- 
tomed paths,  as  these  offer  them  a  minimum  of  resistance.  Let  us 
follow  the  progress  of  the  nervous  impulse  set  up  by  a  burn, 
so  that  we  may  at  the  same  time  obtain  some  idea  of  the 
diversity  of  the  mechanisms  affected,  and  the  marvellous 
manner  in  which  their  action  is  controlled.  From  the  irritated 
skin  the  sensitive  neuron  conveys  a  special  dolorific  disturbance 
to  the  posterior  horn  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  there  the  filaments 
of  this  neuron  and  those  of  the  motor  neuron  in  the  anterior 
or  ventral  horn  enter  into  a  relation  which  results  in  a  release 
of  energy.  In  the  diagram  the  spinal  cord  is  supposed  to 

1  Marinesco,  Comptes  rendus  Biologic,  8  January,  1915. 


THE    ORGANIC    FUNCTIONS    OF   MAN 


37 


be  bisected  horizontally,  in  order  to  show  the  grey  cellular 
region  in  which  sensation,  we  know  not  how,  is  converted 
into  an  order  to  this  or  that  muscle  to  contract.  It  seems 
admissible  to  us  that  all  the  neurons  may  vibrate  in  the  same 
manner,  having  all  the  same  histological  and  chemical 
character,  and  that  their  functions  are  sensory  or  motor 
according  to  the 
organs  in  which  they 
terminate. 


Brain 


XVII.—  But   what 


Thalam 


\  Corpora 
'     Striata 


Bulb  or  Medulla 
Qblongata 

.Spinal  cord 


we  particularly  wish- 

ed   to    remark    was 

that  this  spinal  reflex 

arc    is    the    shortest 

possible.       It  is  not 

the  only  arc  ;  for  the 

disturbance  follows  a 

fibre    of    the    spinal 

cord    ascending     to- 

ward the  brain,  which, 

when  it  reaches  the 

bulb     or     medulla 

oblongata,     finds     a 

number     of     further 

relations      available. 

Here  it  may  act  upon 

a  second  neuron  which 

proceeds   directly   to 

the    brain,    after    an 

important  relay  in  the   optic   thalami.     The   surface   of   the 

brain,  or  the  cortex,  as  it  is  called,  contains  motor  cells  of 

a  pyramidal  form.    One  of  these  receives  the  vibration  and 

communicates  it  to   its   fellows.     After    a    series    of    trans- 

missions the  disturbance  attains  a  terminal  centre  in  one  of 

the  striated  bodies  (corpora  striatd),  whence  it  returns  to  the 

bulb  and  the  spinal  column. 

The   reflexion    of   the    sensation    therefore    occurs   in   the 


Skin 


FIG.  12. — Paths  followed  by  Nerve-Impulses,  and 
nervous  Connections. 


38  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

cerebral  cortex,  which  is  a  sensory  and  motor  zone,  the  seat 
of  the  general  government  of  all  the  territories  of  the  organism. 
The  length  of  the  reflex  arc  increases  the  time  occupied  by 
the  reflexion.  The  voluntary,  conscious  action  is  therefore 
necessarily  later  in  time  than  the  involuntary,  unconscious 
action  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  hand  the  moment  it  is  burned. 
This  latter  movement  is  made,  and  the  danger  is  averted : 
the  act  of  will  follows  it ;  but  there  is  no  need  to  repeat  the 
movement  of  the  hand  ;  the  motor  impulse  is  therefore 
checked,  or  inhibited,  by  an  inhibitory  cerebral  neuron  which 
intercepts  it  before  it  has  passed  the  bulb  or  medulla  oblongata 
(see  dotted  lines).  The  phenomenon  of  consciousness  and 
will  appears  therefore  to  be  a  process  of  sensory  synthesis,  which 
rectifies,  orders,  and  adapts.  It  is  bound  up  with  the  very 
life  of  the  nervous  tissues,  which  are  fed  with  a  regular  supply 
of  blood,  which  brings  with  it  the  indispensable  oxygen. 

The  manifestations  of  the  intellect  are  rudimentary  at 
birth,  owing  to  a  lack  of  sensations.  In  the  child  there  is 
little  skill  of  movement,  because  the  cerebral  cortex  has  not 
as  yet  assembled  and  combined,  by  means  of  its  associative 
neurons,  a  sufficiency  of  the  elements  of  synthesis  by  means 
of  which  education  progresses.  We  must  also  mention  the 
cerebellum,  which  co-ordinates  the  attitudes  of  the  body  and 
ensures  equilibrium.  The  cortical  cells  of  the  cerebellum 
(Purkinje's  cells)  are  as  important  as  the  pyramidal  cells  of 
the  brain ;  they  receive  the  tactile,  auditive,  and  visual 
sensations,  and  react  on  the  muscular  system  by  bulbo-spinal 
and  even  cerebral  messages. 

Thus  the  nervous  system  unites  the  surface  of  the  body 
with  a  central  axis  which  terminates  in  the  mass  of  the  brain. 
The  connections  of  the  neurons  have  often  been  compared  to 
those  of  telegraph  wires,  which,  starting  from  various  points, 
report  events,  by  successive  relays,  to  a  central  office.  The 
comparison  is  good,  if  we  add  that  the  messages  received  in 
this  central  office  leave  almost  indelible  records,  for  nervous 
tissue,  more  than  any  other  living  substance,  retains  a  disposi- 
tion to  reproduce  its  past  life,  to  react  in  an  identical  manner 
under  the  same  stimulus,  and  to  prolong  its  vibratory  conditions 


THE  ORGANIC  FUNCTIONS  OF  MAN  39 

in  time.  This  organic  memory  is  the  condition  of  the  intellec- 
tual memory  of  which  Shakespeare  said  that  it  was  "  the 
sentinel  of  the  brain."  Does  it  matter,  .after  this,  whether 
we  are  or  are  not  exactly  informed  as  to  the  exact  manner 
in  which  sensations  are  transmitted,  or  the  nature  of  nervous 
energy,  or  the  part  played  by  this  or  that  nerve  in  the  sensory- 
motor  cycle  ?  It  is  enough  to  know  that  this  inner  world  of 
so-called  psychical  forces  reproduces  the  outer  world,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  means  of  the  senses,  and  that  its 
manifold  echoes  resound  to  the  appeal  of  this  outer  world. 
This  correspondence  will  explain  some  of  the  facts  of  human 
psycho-physiology.1 

1  Concerning  the  relations  of  the  brain  and  the  psychic  self,  see  E.  Becher, 
Gehirn  und  Seek,  Heidelberg,  1911. 


CHAPTER    III 
HUMAN   PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 

XVIII.  The  Development  and  the  Endurance  of  the 
Body. — The  whole  of  the  functions  which  we  have  been  con- 
sidering develop  fairly  rapidly  with  age,  and  the  endurance  of 
the  human  body  is  at  its  maximum  between  25  and  40  years. 

We  find,  in  fact,  that  the  skeleton  completes  the  process  of 
ossification  and  consolidation  about  the  20th  year ;  not  before. 
Muscular  energy  increases  along  the  lines  of  a  curve  which 
rises  rapidly  from  the  16th  year,  attaining  its  highest  point 
between  the  20th  and  21st  years.  We  may  then  conclude  that 
the  architecture  of  the  body  is  sufficiently  robust  to  resist  the 
ordinary  efforts  of  life  as  it  manifests  itself  in  young  people 
of  that  age. 

The  height,  together  with  the  weight,  has  followed  the  same 
development,  and,  if  the  activities  of  the  organism  do  not 
exceed  the  normal,  the  organs,  internal  and  external,  function 
without  showing  signs  of  overwork,  so  that  a  sort  of  physio- 
logical fitness,  familiar  to  all,  protects  them  from  accidents 
and  infectious  germs.  Under  these  conditions  the  develop- 
ment of  the  organism  proceeds  with  moderate  rapidity  and 
in  full  security. 

From  the  50th  year  the  process  is  reversed  ;  there  is  a 
comparatively  slow  descent  until  the  60th  year ;  sometimes 
the  process  is  hardly  perceptible.  Thus  from  the  20th  to 
the  60th  year  man  displays  his  maximum  capacity  for  work 
and  exercises  all  his  faculties  most  fully,  provided  he  is  able 
to  avoid  excesses,  and  does  not  suffer  from  any  predisposing 
taint  (tuberculosis,  syphilis,  hereditary  alcoholism).  But 

40 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  41 

about  the  fiftieth  year  "something  like  an  ageing  of  the  whole 
being  occurs.  .  .  .  This  crisis,  which  gives  the  observer  the 
impression  of  a  crisis  of  age,  commences,  most  frequently,  by 
digestive  disturbances."  x  It  also  reveals  itself  by  a  general 
lassitude,  a  weakening  of  the  will,  and  a  retardation  of  the 
processes  of  nutrition. 

This  critical  age  corresponds  to  a  period  of  a  few  months  at 
most,  and  leaves  no  lasting  disturbance.  Childhood  also 
has  its  critical  period  :  that  of  the  anaemia  of  growth,  which 
occurs  between  the  5th  and  7th  years  ;  2  the  body  grows 
taller  and  thinner ;  the  blood  is  less  rich  ;  the  energies  dim- 
inish. The  child  must  be  guarded  against  all  excessive  effort, 
in  order  that  the  organs  may  develop  in  a  normal  manner. 
Adolescence,  which  commences  about  the  16th  year,  and  youth, 
which  continues  to  the  40th  year,  form  the  age  of  power, 
bodily  and  mental ;  they  create  the  works  which  the  virile 
age  ripens  and  reinforces.  Woman  completes  her  develop- 
ment at  an  earlier  age  ;  according  to  the  climate,  she  attains 
the  age  of  puberty  between  13  and  15  years,  while  her  height 
and  her  strength  are  fully  developed  by  her  19th  year. 

Her  strength  is  half  that  of  man,  and  it  is  not  exerted  so 
rapidly.  At  50  years  old  age  sets  in  with  the  menopause, 
the  cessation  of  the  menstrual  function.  One  may  therefore 
estimate  the  period  of  full  physical  activity  to  be  40  years 
in  the  case  of  the  man,  and  30  years  in  that  of  the  woman. 

XIX.  Psychical  or  Mental  Activity. — Psychical  activity 
follows  almost  the  same  lines  of  development,  except  that 
it  survives  physical  activity,  and  sometimes  resists  the  effects 
of  a  very  advanced  age.  Nervous  excitability  is  greater  in 
the  child  than  in  the  adult ;  childhood  is  the  period  of  keen 
sensations  and  excess  of  movement ;  the  nervous  system 
betrays  its  predominance  over  the  other  systems  ;  one  sees 
its  filaments  under  the  skin  ;  the  senses  reach  out  for  education  ; 
experience  is  in  process  of  formation,  and  the  moment  is 
propitious  to  impose  selection  and  direction  upon  it.  Intel- 

1  M.  de  Fleury,  Tribune  medicale,  p.  69 ;   1910. 

2  L.  Furst,  Das  Kind  und  seine  Pflege,  Leipzig,  1877  (2nd  ed.). 


42  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL   ORGANISATION 

lectual  labour  is  for  many  years  a  work  of  absorption.  At 
the  age  of  25  years  in  man,  and  21  in  woman,  it  is  transformed 
into  a  work  of  restitution,  which  may  reveal  itself,  between  the 
ages  of  40  and  50,  by  the  loftiest  creations  of  the  mind. 

The  creative  faculty,  which  combines  and  co-ordinates 
sensations,  is  chiefly  the  appanage  of  man  ;  the  other  sex 
is  characterised  by  the  survival  and  reinforcement  of  those 
sensations  which  predispose  it  to  create  works  of  imagination 
or  sentiment,  rather  than  works  which  call  for  hard  thinking  and 
determined  application.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  attention, 
which  requires  that  certain  sensations  among  all  the  sensations 
of  our  life  shall  by  preference  occupy  the  field  of  consciousness, 
and  is  therefore,  by  this  fact  alone,  an  attribute  of  the  male 
organisation,  which  is  characterised  by  motor  impulses  and 
will-power.  The  cerebral  cortex,  on  which  the  entire  muscula- 
ture is,  so  to  speak,  projected,  and  which,  in  man,  fulfils  the 
motor  functions  more  fully,  should  provide  the  explanation 
of  these  sexual  differences,  in  which  some  have  wrongly  per- 
ceived a  difference  of  intellectual  level. 

Mobius  1  has  vigorously  maintained  this  theory  of  feminine 
inferiority,  which  is,  in  his  opinion,  caused  by  the  small  mass 
of  the  brain,  the  keen  sensibility  of  woman,  and  the  close  approxi- 
mation of  her  instincts  to  those  of  the  animal. 

It  is  true  that  the  cerebral  mass  of  the  male  brain  is  larger 
than  that  of  the  female  brain.  Its  weight  is  estimated  at  birth 
as  400  grammes,  as  against  380  grammes.2  The  schoolboy 
has  a  larger  head  than  the  schoolgirl,  even  at  or  about  the 
age  of  11,  when  girls  are,  generally,  speaking,  further  developed 
than  boys.3  In  the  adult,  the  man's  brain  attains  the  average 
weight  of  1,370  grammes,  and  the  woman's  brain  the  average 
weight  of  1,223  grammes,  and  this  difference  of  147  grammes 
is  observed  in  persons  of  the  same  weight  but  of  opposite 
sex.4 

'     1  Mobius,  t)ber  den  physiol.  Schwachsinn  des  Weibes;    Halle,  1912. 

*E.  Handmann,  Arch.  f.  Anal.  u.  PJiys.,  Anat.  Abt.,  p.  1,  1906. 

3  Beyerthal,  Jahrb.  u.  die  Schiilarztliche  Tdtigkeit  an  den  Hilfsklassen 
Stadt.  Volkschule  in  Worms,  Schuljahr,  1904-5.  Rose,  Arch.  /.  Rassen  u. 
Gesel.  Biol,  Vol.  II.,  p.  689 ;  Vol.  III.,  p.  42,  1905-6. 

«  Felix  Marchand,  Biol.  Centralblatt,  Vol.  XXII.,  p.  12,  1902. 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  43 

But  this  is  of  no  significance,  for  greater  differences  often 
occur  between  individuals  of  the  same  sex,  which  bear  no  rela- 
tion to  the  intellectual  capacities.  Precious  ideas  may  exist 
in  a  small  head,  and  the  heaviest  brain  will  not  always  prevent 
imbecility. 

Thus,  despite  the  proofs  which  he  strives  to  furnish  of  the 
inferiority  of  woman,  and  the  ridicule  which  he  throws  upon 
"  the  unnatural  effort  of  feminism,"  Mobius  appears  to  me  to 
be  the  victim  of  a  confusion  of  ideas.  There  is  not,  between 
man  and  woman,  a  difference  of  degree  in  respect  of  cerebral 
power,  or  intellect,  or  the  quantity  of  psychical  energy  pro- 
duced ;  there  is  only  a  question  of  quality ;  the  modes  of 
intellectual  labour  are  not  identical.  In  the  case  of  the 
woman  sensibility  holds  the  first  place  ;  it  is  imposed  upon 
her  by  habit  and  by  heredity.  In  man,  on  the  contrary, 
abstract  thought  and  reason  come  first ;  and  by  virtue  of  this 
very  quality  of  abstractness  a  comparative  independence 
of  the  motor  functions  is  established  in  respect  of  external 
actions  ;  and  it  is  this  independence  which  is  expressed  by  the 
word  will. 

Accordingly,  the  development  of  the  mind  takes  place 
upon  two  frequently  distinct  planes.  I  readily  admit  that 
the  feminists  confuse  the  two  planes,  at  all  events  physio- 
logically speaking.  But  "  feminism  "  finds  its  profoundest 
justification  in  its  social  applications  ;  I  mean,  in  life  such  as 
it  has  been  made  by  the  usages  of  the  modern  world,  and  its 
economic  laws  and  conditions. 

To  return  to  the  human  brain  :  it  seems  difficult  to  derive 
any  information  from  its  weight,  its  convolutions,  and  its  archi- 
tecture. Neither  does  the  examination  of  this  organ  enable 
us  to  form  any  conclusions  as  to  race  ;  its  average  weight 
is  the  same  in  the  Australians,  the  Hindus,  the  Chinese,  the 
Japanese,  and  the  Malays  as  in  the  European.  The  brain  of 
the  negro,  however,  is  less  massive  and  less  dense.1  But  there 
is  no  real  relation  between  quantity  and  quality,  between 
mechanical  and  psychical  factors.  Races,  like  individuals, 

1  Kohlbrugge,  Zeit.  f.  Morphol.  u.  Anthrop.,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  596 ;— Verhandl.  d. 
konike  Ak.  v.  Wetensch  le  Amsterdam,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  1,  1909. 


44  THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

and  like  the  two  sexes,  do  not  reveal  any  visible  cerebral 
index  of  intellectual  inequality. 

XX.  Old  Age. — The  development  of  the  functions  modifies 
its  pace  during  age,  that  is,  from  the  fiftieth  or  sixtieth  year, 
according  to  sex.  All  the  organs  tend  to  become  atrophied  ; 
the  strength,  weight,  and  height  diminish  ;  the  body,  little  by 
little,  becomes  emaciated  and  anaemic  (senile  anaemia).  From 
the  seventieth  year  these  phenomena  undergo  acceleration  ; 
the  skeleton  becomes  fragile,  and  less  dense,  above  all  in  the 
bones  of  the  lower  limbs  (fragilitas  vitred),  which  lose  a  portion 
of  their  calcareous  constituents.  These  gradually  calcify 
the  vascular  organs,  rendering  them  less  elastic ;  arterio- 
sclerosis makes  its  appearance,  with  its  formidable  sequelae ; 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  encounters  an  increased  resistance, 
which  causes  a  hypertrophy  of  the  heart,  and  retards  the  nutritive 
exchanges.  According  to  the  dictum  of  Cazalis,  "  a  man  is  as 
old  as  his  arteries."  l 

The  action  of  the  lungs  is  impeded,  and  becomes  less  elastic, 
while  emphysema  is  often  observed.  Respiration  is  neither 
frequent  nor  profound  ;  there  is  a  retardation  of  the  vital 
processes.  Those  portions  of  the  lung  which  lie  between  the 
heart  and  the  wall  of  the  chest  lose  their  elasticity,  so  that  the 
heart  becomes  united  to  this  wall.  "  Without  the  existence 
of  adhesions,"  says  Pierre  Delbet,  "  this  cardio-thoracic  soli- 
darity causes,  in  a  certain  sense,  a  functional  symphysis."  z 
Hence  the  shortness  of  breath  which  accompanies  physical 
effort  in  the  majority  of  men  who  have  passed  their  fiftieth 
year. 

As  for  the  locomotive  organs,  the  muscles  become  pale  and 
-emaciated  ;  the  contractile  tissue  is  less  abundant,  and  its 
structure  is  impaired  ;  it  no  longer  responds  to  its  function, 
•especially  as  the  articulations  themselves  are  stiff  and  painful. 

The  entire  nervous  system,  moreover,  suffers  depreciation  ; 
the  cell,  the  centre  of  energy,  and  the  controller  of  action, 

1  Consult  Demange,  Etude  sur  laveillesse ;  Alcan,  1886 ;— S.  Minot,  The  Problem 
of  Age,  Growth,  and  Death,  London,  1908 ;— H.  Ribbert,  Der  Tod  aus  alter  schwiiche, 
Bonn,  1908 ;— E.  Metschnikoff,  Essais  optimistes,  Paris,  1907. 

2  Pierre  Delbet,  C.R.,  Vol.  CLX.,  p.  402;    29  March,  1915. 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  45 

is  invaded  by  waste  tissue  which  has  no  energetic  properties. 
The  brain  is  atrophied,  notably  in  the  frontal  lobe  ;  this 
atrophy  was  observed  by  Hansemann  *  in  the  historian  Momm- 
sen  (86  years),  the  chemist  Bunsen  (88),  and  the  painter 
Menzel  (89) ;  but  it  is  barely  perceptible  in  the  cerebellum.2 
From  this  it  results  that  the  equilibrium  of  the  body  is  main- 
tained, although  the  movements  are  more  deliberate.  The 
nervous  energy  is  unequal  to  voluntary  stimulation  ;  hence 
a  sort  of  vacillation,  the  tremulousness  of  age,  and  the  inability 
to  sustain  a  great  and  prolonged  physical  effort. 

As  for  the  cause,  sole  or  multiple,  natural  or  accidental,  of 
age,  it  has  formed  the  subject  of  a  whole  series  of  studies,  the 
consideration  of  which  would  lie  outside  our  programme.* 
But  in  a  word  we  may  say  that  old  age  is  a  phase — not 
the  termination — of  cellular  transformation  ;  a  phase  which 
continues  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  toxic  products  resulting  from  organic  life.  Every- 
thing which  diminishes  this  poisoning  process,  temperance  in 
the  matter  of  diet  above  all,  must  be  regarded  as  a  factor  of 
longevity. 

XXI.  Human  Aptitudes. — 1.  Physical  aptitudes. — The 
general  form  of  the  body  is,  geometrically  speaking,  as  little 
cumbersome  as  possible  in  the  case  of  so  complicated  a  machine. 
The  trunk  encloses  the  organs  capable  of  maintaining  move- 
ment, and  of  providing  the  muscles  with  energy.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  observe,  in  this  connection,  that  persons  of  moderate 
stature  are  the  most  robust.  If  we  compare  the  height  when 
seated  with  the  total  stature,  we  obtain  a  thoracic  coefficient  of 
0-54.  This  ratio  is  slightly  lower — 0-53 — in  tall  persons,  and 
in  most  women.  A  lower  coefficient  than  0-52  is  the  mark 
of  a  rather  feeble  constitution.  The  importance  of  the  seated 
height  is  connected  with  the  physiological  function  of  the 
thorax,  and  the  semi-fixity  of  its  dimensions.  It  includes  the 

1  Hansemann,  Bibliot.  Med.,  Abhai-dl.  II.,  Anat,  part  5.     . 

2  A.  Leri,   Le  Cerveau  senile,  Lille,   1906 ; — Anglade  and  Calmettes,  Nouv. 
Iconogr.  de  la  Salpetriere,  p.  357,  1907. 

3  See  A.  Dastre,  La  Vie  et  la  Mort,  p.  314,  Paris,  1907  ;— Muhlmann,  Das  Alt. 
u.  d.  Physiol  Tod,  Jena,  1910 ;— Metchnikoff,  loc.  cit. 


46  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL   ORGANISATION 

axis  of  the  body,  the  vertical  column,  from  which  the  heart 
and  the  lungs  are  to  a  certain  extent  suspended.  It  is  more 
fully  developed  in  man  than  in  woman  ;  for  man,  by  reason 
of  his  greater  muscular  power,  has  need  of  an  intense  respira- 
tory activity,  a  great  absorption  of  air  ;  while  in  woman  there 
is  a  marked  predominance  of  the  vegetative  functions.  The 
average  man  weighs  about  65  kilogrammes  (10  stones  3  Ibs.) 
for  a  height  of  165  centimetres  (5ft.  5in.).  I  will  give  the 
name  of  morphological  coefficient  to  the  ratio  between  these 
two  quantities,  which  is  ^  =  0-394 ;  it  should  not  fall 
below  0-360,  or  the  resistance  of  the  organism  may  be  com- 
promised. These  two  coefficients,  the  thoracic  and  the 
morphological,  complete  one  another,  and  their  indications 
are  almost  invariably  in  concordance.  The  human  body 
spreads  outward  as  do  the  columns  observed  in  ancient  monu- 
ments ;  it  is  strongly  reinforced  in  the  region  of  the  pelvis. 
According  to  the  wisdom  of  the  ancients,  the  strength  of  a 
man  resided  in  his  loins  ;  but  an  exaggerated  development 
of  the  iliac  bones  hampers  movement,  giving  rise  to  a  rotatory 
gait.  Thus  nomadic,  drifting  peoples  possess  a  comparatively 
narrow  pelvis,  while  in  the  case  of  heavy-weight  athletes  the 
hips  are  wide  and  well  provided  with  muscles. 

XXII. — Dynamic  activities  (manual  and  other  physical 
labour,  sports,  games,  etc.)  favour  the  growth  or  the  refine- 
ment of  the  body  ;  market  porters,  waggoners,  draymen,  dock 
labourers,  are  often  massively  built ;  dancers,  runners,  and 
fencers  are  slender,  almost  thin.  The  bearing  of  burdens, 
or,  in  cripples,  the  wearing  of  artificial  limbs,  in  the  long  run 
modifies  the  form  and  the  strength  of  the  limbs  ;  walking 
eventually  causes  the  foot  to  become  permanently  flatter 
and  longer,  while  the  hand  is  equally  affected  by  the  hand- 
ling of  heavy  tools  (hammers,  pick-axes,  spades,  etc.) ;  the 
spinal  column  becomes  curved  by  the  bearing  of  burdens  (as 
in  peasants,  porters,  and  occasionally  infantrymen) ;  under 
continuous  pressure  it  undergoes  a  thickening  which  slightly 
reduces  its  length — that  is,  the  stature.  Physical  education, 
above  all  in  childhood,  should  aim  at  a  harmonious  develop- 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  47 

ment  of  the  framework  of  the  body,  and  at  making  it  straight 
again  should  it  become  at  all  misshapen.  The  orthopaedic 
surgeon  will  take  care  that  artificial  appliances  are  perfectly 
adjusted,  and  that  no  friction  occurs. 

Physically  speaking,  the  proportions  of  the  limbs  are  not 
without  effect  upon  professional  aptitudes  ;  long  limbs  are 
adapted  to  ample  but  deliberate  movements,  while  short 
limbs  denote  rapidity  of  movement.  Thus  the  woodcutter,  the 
blacksmith,  and  the  sawyer  develop  more  power,  and  produce 
a  greater  effect,  if  the  implement  they  wield  has  a  long  arm 
behind  it.  The  formation  of  the  body  is  often,  in  this  con- 
nection, a  guide  to  the  choice  of  workers  fitted  for  this  or 
that  form  of  labour ;  but  these  indications  are  far  from 
absolute  in  character,  for  adaptation  is  a  factor  of  the  greatest 
importance  ;  the  fencer  Kirschoffer  did  wonders  in  spite  of 
his  small  stature,  which  placed  him  at  a  disadvantage  and 
exhausted  his  strength. 

In  general,  however,  men  are  organised  and  adapted  to 
work  in  a  certain  fashion.,  for  in  this  case  their  labour  is  more 
economical.  They  might  be  divided  into  types,  according 
to  the  physiological  function  which  they  display  most  prom- 
inently, and  which  appears  to  control  all  the  rest.  One  of 
these  types  is  the  digestive  type  ;  men  of  this  type  eat  very 
largely,  and  work  slowly,  but  they  can  labour  for  long  periods  ; 
if  they  have  well-proportioned  limbs  they  may  become  good 
runners.  The  runners  of  the  East,  the  rekkas,  cover  very 
great  distances,  with  a  long,  rapid  stride.  Such  men  are 
capable  of  a  great  output  when  carrying  small  burdens  for 
long  periods  (Fig.  13). 

A  second  type  is  the  muscular  type.  Men  of  this  category 
are  capable  of  exerting  great  energy,  though  never  for  a  very 
long  time  ;  but  the  musculature  of  this  type  may  be  har- 
moniously developed  upon  a  perfectly  symmetrical  body, 
constituting  a  perfect  morphological  expression.  In  such 
cases  the  man  is  powerful  and  supple,  capable  of  continued 
activity  :  he  represents  the  maximum  of  energy  in  the  mini- 
mum of  mass.  The  accomplished  athlete  provides  an  example 
of  this  type  (Fig.  14). 


48  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

A  third  type,  described  as  respiratory,  possesses  the  advan- 
tage of  being  capable  of  sustaining  a  comparatively  great  effort 


FIG.  13. — Digestive  Type  (Thooris).  FIG.  14. — Muscular  Type. 

for  a  long  period  ;    the  thoracic  cage  is  preponderant,  and 
the  shoulders  are  largely  developed  (Fig.  15). 

Lastly,  we  must  certainly  distinguish  a  nervous  type,  which, 
owing  to  the  celerity  with  which  its  muscles  contract,  works 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  49 

with  economy,  is,  by  reason  of  this  very  speed,  capable  of  exert- 
ing great  effort,  and,  owing  to  its  temperament,  is  able  to  resist 
the  onslaughts  of  fatigue  (Fig.  16). 


FIG.  15. — Respiratory  Type.  FIG.  16. — Cerebral  or  nervous  Type. 

Sigaud,  who  has  defined  various  types  of  humanity,  espe- 
cially from  the  standpoint  of  morbid  development,1  has  paid 

1C.  Sigaud,  Traite  de  la  digestion,  Vol.  II.,  Paris,  1908;  La  Forme  humaine, 
Vol.  L,  p.  32,  1914. 


50  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

particular  attention  to  the  development  of  the  nervous  and 
cerebral  systems,  and  calls  our  attention  to  the  cerebral  type 
(Fig.  16),  which  we  should  rather  regard  as  the  nervous  type 
with  psychical  predominance.  In  Figs.  13  to  16  Thooris  has 
collected  representations  of  the  four  types  which  we  have 
just  described.  These  photographs  are  highly  expressive ; 
but  it  should  be  added  that  they  are  selected  ;  that  in  reality 
the  average  man  approximates  to  one  of  these  types,  without 
displaying  very  definite  characteristics  ;  and,  in  a  word,  that 
we  should  not  disregard  the  marvellous  resources  of  equilibrium 
and  training,  which  the  organism  is  able  to  draw  upon. 
"  Practice  can  do  anything,"  taught  the  Greek  philosopher 
Periander,  twenty-five  centuries  ago.  It  is  none  the  less  true 
that  the  distinctions  between  the  four  types  are  physiologically 
of  the  greatest  interest,  for  they  indicate  the  predominant 
organic  function,  and  what  the  latter  demands  for  its  normal 
exercise.  For  example,  to  give  a  nervous  type  the  same 
regimen  as  to  labour  and  alimentation  as  the  digestive  type 
would  be  absurd  ;  the  man  would  not  put  forth  his  maximum 
of  useful  effort,  and  his  health  might  suffer  from  the  experi- 
ment. The  methods  to  be  observed,  in  the  matter  of  physical 
culture,  will  be  different  and  appropriate  lor  each  of  these 
functional  and  energetic  types. 

XXIII. — 2.  Psychical  Aptitudes. — Let  us,  on  the  other  hand, 
consider  the  psychological  qualities  of  the  individual.  These 
are  the  reflection  of  his  physiological  condition  ;  the  problem 
has  even  been  simplified  to  the  extent  of  attributing  them 
to  a  special  structure  of  the  brain.  But  very  little  survives 
of  the  speculations  which  substituted  the  cerebral  cortex 
-  for  the  cranial  protuberances  of  the  famous  phrenologist  Gall 
(1758-1828).  To-day  the  sensori-motor  surface  of  the  brain 
has  been  sufficiently  analysed  by  physiological  experiment 
to  enable  us  to  deduce  certain  doctrines  therefrom.  To  begin 
with,  we  may  refer  to  that  already  formulated  (§  XVII.) : 
namely,  that  the  cells  of  the  grey  cortical  layer  belong  to 
sensory  or  motor  neurons,  or  to  the  neurons  of  association  ; 
certain  among  them  are  said  to  fulfil  a  function  of  inhibition, 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  51 

and  there  are  some  which,  being  stimulated  from  without  and 
under  special  conditions — by  a  sound,  a  shock,  or  a  light — 
reinforce  the  motor  reaction,  and  the  exercise  of  muscular 
force.1  Then  it  has  been  noted  that  the  stimulation  of  the 
cortex  produces  movements  exhibiting  a  character  of  order 
and  co-ordination  ;  while  the  suppression  of  a  portion  of 
this  cortex  renders  certain  of  these  movements,  and  certain 
sensations,  impossible.  For  example,  a  dog  upon  which  this 
operation  has  been  performed  is  able  to  walk  and  to  leap, 
but  he  can  no  longer  hold  a  bone  and  gnaw  it.2 

This  method  of  investigation  has  enabled  the  physiologists 
to  distinguish  cortical  territories,  and  to  determine  actual 
''cerebral  localisations"3:  that  of  the  tactile  sense,  the 
most  extensive,  covering  the  Rolandic  convolutions,  with  the 
ascending  frontal  and  parietal  convolutions ;  that  of  the 
acoustic  sense,  situated  in  the  temporal  region  ;  that  of  the 
visual  sense,  situated  in  the  occipital  lobe  ;  and  that  of  articu- 
late language,  known  as  Broca's  centre  (1861),  whose  existence 
was  too  positively  contested  by  Marie,4  but  was  accepted  by 
Marinesco,  and  which  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  third  left- 
hand  frontal  convolution. 

The  ablation  of  the  parietal  cortex  of  the  dog  deprives  it 
of  the  ability  to  ascend  or  descend  a  staircase,  or  to  "  give 
its  paw."  Here  we  have  the  localisation  of  a  function  of 
association  and  co-ordination  of  the  elementary  mental 
processes.  However,  the  frontal  lobe,  which  by  itself  repre- 
sents a  third  part  of  the  cerebral  surface,  and  is  bounded 
by  the  fissures  of  Rolando  and  Sylvius,  is  of  greater  import- 
ance. A  lesion  of  this  lobe,  in  the  monkey5  or  in  man,  renders 
the  character  impulsive  and  violent.  Its  moderating  action 

1  This  is  the  phenomenon  of  Bahnung,  or  the  nervous  acceleration  of  the  German 
writers.  (See  Le  Moteur  Humain,  p.  343.) 

2Ferrier,  Les  Fonctions  du  cerveau,  Paris,  1878; — Rosenfeld,  Die  Physiologic 
des  Grosshirns,  Leipzig,  1913. 

3  J.  Demoor,  Les  Centres  sensitivo-moteurs,  Brussells,  1899 ; — Von  Monakow, 
Neue  Gesichtsp.  in  d.  Frage  nach  d.  LoTcal  in  Grossgehirn,  Wiesbaden, 
1911. 

*  Marie,  Semaine  med.,  May,  1906 ;— Marinesco,  Rei:  Gen.  Sc.,  p.  826,  1910. 

6  Bianchi,  The  Brain,  Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  497,  1895. 


52  THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

is  obvious  ;  with  it  disappears  the  mechanism  of  the  direction 
and  control  of  the  reflexes  ;  fewer  neurons  are  brought  into 
play,  the  conscience  becomes  enfeebled,  and  the  duration  of 
the  reflexes  is  diminished  by  about  one-fourth,  owing  to  the 
lack  of  the  internal  activity  which  harmonises  them.1  Brod- 
mann,  moreover,  has  noted,  in  the  human  brain,  an  exag- 
gerated development  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  frontal 
lobe.  Physiologists  are  therefore  strongly  inclined  to  see 
in  this  tract  the  localisation  of  psychical  activity.2  "  Beat, 
friend,  upon  thy  brow ;  'tis  there  that  genius  dwells,"  says 
the  poet.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  we  cannot  admit  that  the 
neurons  of  the  frontal  region  possess  more  than  a  superior 
function  of  control  and  moderation,  a  function  which  is  devel- 
oped by  habit,  which  creates  strength  of  will,  coolness,  and 
apparent  moral  insensibility. 

Certain  writers  attach  no  less  importance  to  the  parietal 
convolutions,  because  they  are  highly  developed  in  the  case  of 
men  of  superior  capacities  (notably  in  Kant  and  Gauss),3 
and  because  they  are  greatly  reduced  in  the  case  of  uneducated 
and  backward  persons,  and  in  negroes. 

Now  this  is  not  very  decisive,  for  whereas  Gauss's  brain, 
for  example,  displayed  a  predominant  frontal  lobe,  it  was 
also  discovered  that  it  contained  a  profusion  of  fine  con- 
volutions, which  some  regarded  as  indications  of  mathematical 
genius. 

So  far  we  must  admit  that  no  certain  information  of 
the  localisation  of  the  psychical  faculties  has  resulted 
from  the  study  of  the  brain,  still  less  from  that  of  the 
skull. 

In  Fig.  17  we  give  a  diagram  of  cerebral  localisations,  in 
accordance  with  recent  ideas.  If  the  reader  will  remember 
that  the  nervous  fibres  of  the  spinal  cord  cross  from  side  to  side 
in  the  region  of  the  bulb,  he  will  understand  the  reason  of  the 

1  Fano  and  Libertini,  Arch.  ital.  Biol,  Vol.  XXIV.,  p.  438 ;— Oddi,  OK?,,  Vol. 
XXIV,  p.  360,  1895. 

2  K.  Brodmann,  Vergl.  Lokalizationslehred.Grossh., Leipzig,  1909; — Verhandl. 
d.   Anat.  Gesellsch.,  April,  1912. 

3  A  German  philosopher  and  a  German  mathematician. 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 


53 


correspondence  between  the  left  cerebral  hemisphere  and  the 
right  side  of  the  body,  and  vice  versa. 

XXIV.  The  Personal  Equation. — After  all,  the  brain 
should  be  studied  in  connection  with  its  physiological  properties, 
and  the  nervous  processes  themselves.  In  this  connection  we 
know  that  reflexes  do  not  occur  with  uniform  rapidity  in  the 
case  of  every  individual.  The  most  rapid  reflexes  occupy  four 


Head  snd.  Eyes 

's 

Hands   -«. 


Hips       Trunk 


Elbow 
-Face 

•'  Tongue  Larynx 


fissure 
Sylvius 


FIG.  17.— Diagram  of  Cerebral  Localisations. 


to  five  hundredths  of  a  second  ;  but  their  duration  is  modified 
by  age  ;  long  in  the  new-born  child,  it  is  greatly  diminished 
in  the  adult  and  as  a  result  of  practice.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  increased  by  certain  lesions  of  the  nervous  centres,  princi- 
pally those  of  the  cortex.  The  name  of  personal  equation 
has  been  given  to  the  period  of  time  which  divides  the  moment 
at  which  we  perceive  a  tactile,  visual,  or  auditive  sensation, 
and  the  moment  when  we  react  by  a  movement.  Many 
phenomena  occur  between  these  two  moments,  which  cannot 
IDC  analysed  in  this  brief  survey  of  the  dynamics  of  the  nervous 


54 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


system.  We  will  simply  remark  that  the  normal  adult 
possesses  a  personal  equation,  the  values  of  which  are  as 
follows  : 

Tactile  reaction       0-14  of  a  second. 

Auditive  reaction    . .          . .     0-15 

Visual  reaction        . .          .  .     0-19 

To  measure  it,  we  may  conveniently  employ  the  stimulation 
of  light.  An  electric  current  illuminates  an  incandescent 
lamp,  now  red,  now  blue,  and  at  the  same  time  releases  a 


Electric  Bulbs 


'"•  Electric  Tuning  Fork 
S,S,  Pneumatic  Styles  ^  j('   jambours 

FIG.  18. — Device  for  Measuring  the  Personal  Equation. 

Desprez  signal  (Fig.  18).  The  subject  perceives  the  sensation 
of  colour,  and  reacts  by  pressing  one  finger  on  the  red  or  the 
blue  key,  which  actuates  the  diaphragm  of  a  simple  trans- 
mitting device.  The  time  is  recorded  in  hundredths  of  a 
second. 

The  distance  between  the  records  traced  by  the  Desprez 
signal  and  the  styles  of  the  transmitting  tambours  gives  the 
duration  of  the  reaction,  which  in  this  particular  instance 
comprises  an  additional  element,  that  of  choice  between  the 
two  finger-plates.1 

Observation  has  definitely  demonstrated  that  there  are 
persons  whose  equation  is  long,  and  others  whose  equation  is 

1  For  other  types  of  apparatus  see  Toulouse  and  Pieron,  Technique  de 
Psychologic  cxpe'rimentale,  Vol.  II.,  2nd  ed.  Paris,  1911. 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  55 

short ;  that  is,  they  may  be  divided  into  quick  and  slow  sub- 
jects. We  have  here  an  important  qualificative  classification, 
intrinsic  in  the  individual,  based  upon  his  proper  reactional 
condition,  into  which  enter  the  effects  of  heredity  and  educa- 
tion. A  man  whose  reactions  are  slow  and  whose  sensations 
are  not  acute  is  not  fitted  to  perform  work  demanding  dexterity 
and  attention.  We  shall  see  later  on  that  the  personal  equation 
may  be  very  simply  determined  (see  §  LXVL).  The  voluntary 
movements,  which  are  ordained  directly  by  the  brain,  without 
external  stimulation,  are  evidently  more  rapidly  produced  ; 
the  equation  may  fall  as  low  as  -07  of  a  second. 

As  for  the  purely  intellectual  qualities,  they  are  the  result 
of  disciplined  and  methodical  cerebral  training,  by  instruction, 
superimposed  upon  hereditary  influences.  They  are  revealed 
more  particularly  by  integrity  of  mind,  judgement,  and  attention, 
which  depend  far  more  upon  the  will  than  upon  sensitive- 
ness. An  experience  of  men  enables  one  to  estimate,  without 
any  serious  error,  the  degree  of  intelligence  possessed  by 
a  man,  or  the  balance  of  his  mental  powers.  But  it  is 
highly  desirable  that  these  should  be  estimated  on  entering 
the  school  or  the  workshop ;  that  a  sort  of  psychometric 
record  should  be  kept,  of  a  faithful  and  accurate  character. 
Later  on  this  would  provide  useful  information,  which  could  be 
supplemented  by  means  of  discreet  and  skilful  inquiries  made 
of  friends  and  relatives.  For  to  rely,  when  making  a  selection 
of  persons,  on  the  impression  received  upon  seeing  them,  and 
hearing  them  speak,  is  to  run  the  risk  of  serious  errors.  Very 
often  the  appearance  of  a  man  tells  nothing,  and  the  subject 
of  conversation,  and  the  circumstances,  are  unfavourable 
to  any  display  of  his  qualities.  In  matters  of  knowledge  and 
behaviour,  and  of  physical  and  intellectual  capacity,  long  and 
methodical  experience  must  be  the  only  guide.1 

Neither  must  it  be  forgotten  that  the  psychical  qualities 
are  for  the  most  part  hereditary,  and  are  transmitted,  as  are 
physiological  defects  and  mental  weaknesses,  through  several 
generations.  It  is  the  same  with  the  intellectual  habits 

1  In  this  connection  see  Mrs.  Gilbreth,  The  Psycholcgy  of  Management,  New 
York,  1914  (Sturgis  and  Walton). 


56  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

acquired  by  exercise.  Humphrey  Davy  observed  that  this 
was  the  reason  why  Moses  forbade  the  Hebrews  to  wed  with 
idolaters.1  It  is  a  reason  which  loses  none  of  its  force  when 
applied  to  the  conditions  of  civilisation  and  culture. 

And  all  these  elements,  physiological  and  psychological, 
which  we  have  considered  in  isolated  groups,  must  in  reality 
be  grouped  in  the  light  of  their  mutual  relations,  which  are  not 
merely  parallel,  but  intimate  and  profound.  These  psycho- 
physiological  relations  are  of  interest  to  the  employer,  the 
factory  manager,  the  physician,  and  the  legislator. 

XXV.  Psycho -physiological  Relations. — Pleasure. — We 
have  stated  that  every  external  impression  is  the  origin  of  a 
sensation.  This  sensation  may  remain  latent,  being  neutralised 
by  others,  and  may  later  on  release  a  reflex  ;  it  is  none  the 
less  true  that  there  is  a  diminution  or  augmentation  of  nervous 
energy  at  the  point  which  Jias  been  affected. 

Sensation  may,  and  frequently  does,  give  rise  to  manifest 
emotional  activities,  to  pain  or  pleasure.2  We  are  all  familiar 
with  instances  of  repressed  emotion  ;  and  men  have  been 
known  to  fall  dead  of  a  "  broken  heart,"  although  there 
was  nothing  to  betray  their  increasing  grief.  The  neutralisa- 
tion of  the  emotions  is  a  function  of  the  cerebral  cortex,  acting 
through  the  optic  thalami  or  the  bulb  (see  Fig.  12) ;  but  it  is 
dependent  upon  the  sound  condition  of  the  digestive  organs 
and  the  heart,  which  are  innervated  by  these  centres.3  Above 
all,  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  repressed  emotions 
may  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  modify  the  neuro-muscular 
energy.  In  any  case  they  reveal  a  trained  will. 

But  the  absence  of  visible  indications  of  reflexes  is  sometimes 
connected  with  a  condition  of  intellectual  decay.  In  such 
cases  it  is  necessary  to  make  sure,  by  means  of  a  cautious 
analysis,  whether  the  emotive  system  is  intact.  In  this 
connection  excess  is  preferable  to  deficiency,  for  it  must  be 

1  Humphrey  Davy,  The  Last  Days  of  a  Philosopher. 

2  See  Bechterev,  Psychologic  objective,  Paris,  Alcan,  1914. 

"Brhsaud,  Lecons  a  la  Salpetriere,  Vol.  I.,  .Paris,  1895 ;— Bechterev  and 
Mislavsky,  Soc.  neurol  et  Psych.,  Kazan,  1893. 


HUMAN    PSYCHO— PHYSIOLOGY  57 

remembered  that  the  intelligence  is  directly  dependent  upon 
sensibility. 

The  man  who  is  experiencing  an  emotion  behaves  differently, 
accordingly  as  it  is  a  cheerful  or  a  depressing  emotion. 

The  emotions  of  pleasure  and  joy  increase  the  tonicity  of 
the  voluntary  muscles,  and  incline  them  to  effort ;  they 
exert  an  inhibitive  effect  upon  painful  sensations,  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  cause  fatigue  to  be  overlooked.  These  facts 
have  been  known  from  antiquity  : 

Molliter  austerum  studio  fallente  laborem  (Horace). 

The  respiration  becomes  accelerated,  and  maintains  the 
energies  ;  the  heart  increases  the  amplitude  of  its  beats,  and 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  stimulated  on  the  surface  ;  there 
is  a  cutaneous  vaso-dilatation.  Everything  which  may 
contribute  to  these  phenomena  of  nervous  and  cardiac  tonicity 
should  be  regarded  as  desirable  :  rewards,  prizes,  com- 
petitions, decorations,  and  moral  advantages  ;  they  are  not 
unwelcome  at  any  age;  it  is  a  matter  of  receiving  one's  deserts, 
which  we  are  naturally  inclined  to  make  manifest.  Sports  and 
amusements  act  as  veritable  tonics  when  they  are  employed 
without  excess  ;  they  are  as  necessary  to  the  workshop  as  to 
the  school ;  a  recreation-room  or  a  playground  is  a  factor  of 
good  work,  the  cost  of  which  is  negligible  in  view  of  its  utility. 

Not  only  does  the  degree  of  pleasure  merit  attention,  but 
also  its  selection  and  its  appropriation,  having  regard  to 
age,  sex,  habits,  and  degrees  of  intelligence. 

Sensations  of  a  joyful  nature  do  more  than  stimulate  activity, 
they  favour  the  vital  processes  ;  they  facilitate  the  digestion 
of  food,  and  add  to  the  abundance  and  efficacy  of  the  digestive 
secretions.  Moreover,  in  the  cycle  of  organic  repair  we  find 
that  cellular  renovation  is  more  rapidly  effected.  Soldiers 
who  have  performed  some  distinguished  action  recover  quickly 
from  their  wounds.  "  Joyous  men,"  said  old  Pare,1  "  always 
recover." 

XXVI.  Pain. — The  phenomena  due  to  grief  and  pain 
are  absolutely  the  reverse  of  those  we  have  been  considering. 

1  Ambroise  Pare,  the  great  French  surgeon,  born  at  Laval  (1517-1590). 


58  THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

They  are  characterised  by  a  disturbance  of  the  muscular  inner- 
vation,  an  inhibition  which  makes  one  feel  "  as  if  one's  arms  and 
legs  were  broken."  The  respiration  is  embarrassed,  dyspnoeic  ; 
the  movements  of  the  heart  are  of  reduced  amplitude  ;  the 
cutaneous  circulation  is  scanty ;  there  is  a  peripheral  vaso- 
constriction. 

The  cardiac  manifestations  are  strongly  marked,  and  often 
serious  ;  notably  in  cases  of  fear  and  anger.  The  surgeon 
Desault,  during  the  Revolution,  observed  that  affections  of 
the  heart  and  aneurisms  were  far  more  common  during  that 
terrible  period.  The  number  of  aged  persons  who  have  died 
during  the  present  war  is  very  great.  This  may  in  part  be 
explained  by  the  narration  of  the  atrocities  committed,  and 
the  unheard-of  employment  of  new  weapons  of  warfare  :  aero- 
planes, dirigibles,  incendiary  bombs,  submarines,  asphyxiating 
gases,  etc. 

Violent  emotions  cause  a  powerful  excitation  of  the  bulb, 
and  give  rise  either  to  palpitations  or  to  syncope,  with  all  its 
consequences.  For  in  the  bulb  originates  one  of  the  most 
important  nerves  of  the  organism  :  the  vagus  or  pneumogastric 
nerve,  whose  branches  are  distributed  over  the  head  and 
neck,  and  through  the  thorax  and  the  abdomen.  It  arrests 
the  heart,  which  is  completely  filled  with  blood,  in  the  diastolic 
phase.  By  this  a  blow  is  immediately  struck  at  the  vitality 
of  the  brain ;  the  consciousness  disappears ;  the  organs 
become  insensible,  and  the  muscles  relax.  Cardiac  syncope 
is  thus  complicated  by  cerebral  anaemia  and  physical  depres- 
sion. 

Having  regard  to  the  importance  of  the  circulation  of  blood 
through  the  tissues  it  will  be  understood  that  any  cause  which 
impedes  it  compromises  human  life  and  energy.  The  relation 
between  the  heart  and  the  brain  is  clearly  established,  and  it 
is  the  most  active  and  essential  relation  of  the  organism.  It 
plays  its  part  in  anger,  as  in  discouragement  and  fear,  engender- 
ing disorders  of  locomotion,  lack  of  co-ordination  in  the 
movements,  and,  in  some  cases,  an  actual  paralysis  of  the 
limbs  ;  it  exerts  an  inhibitory  effect  upon  the  glandular  and 
digestive  secretions,  but  favours  the  secretion  of  tears,  and 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  59 

also  increases  the  peristaltic  movements  of  the  intestines  and 
the  contractions  of  the  bladder.  Experiment  has  demon- 
strated that  such  emotions  excite  the  Rolandic  area  of  the 
cerebral  cortex.1 

Boredom,  ennui,  mental  discontent,  should  also  be  included 
in  the  category  of  painful  sensations.  It  diminishes  the 
tonicity  of  the  muscles,  which  contract  less  swiftly  and  with 
less  amplitude,  and  develop  less  power.2  It  causes  a  slight 
anaemia  of  the  brain,  which  renders  the  latter  incapable  of 
good  and  regular  work  ;  finally,  it  dilates  the  blood-vessels, 
producing  a  condition  of  stasis  in  the  latter,  which  is  revealed 
by  a  tendency  to  yawn.  An  agreeable  emotion  will  immedi- 
ately abolish  these  disagreeable  phenomena. 

As  for  pain,  it  has  no  effect  upon  the  brain  excepting  through 
the  relation  between  the  brain  and  the  heart,  for  the  organ 
of  thought  is  in  itself  not  subject  to  pain  ;  one  may  touch  the 
brain  or  press  the  heart  when  these  organs  are  uncovered,  but 
there  will  be  no  perception  of  pain.  Once  again,  poetry  is  in 
the  wrong. 

But  the  enveloping  membranes  of  the  brain,  above  all  the 
dura  mater,  may  become  painful ;  it  is  only  these  tissues 
which  are  affected  by  disagreeable  sensations,  the  result 
being  headache.3  But  pure  mental  pain  is  the  work  of  the 
imagination  ;  it  draws  its  sustenance  from  the  seat  of  the 
memory,  and  arouses  all  the  echoes  of  the  past.  One  might 
almost  say,  with  Richet,  that  it  is  "  a  function  of  the  intelli- 
gence," 4  for  it  is  less  keen  in  simple-minded  persons,  and  does 
not  persist,  does  not  "  keep  vigil  "  ;  it  is  almost  unknown 
in  idiots,  lunatics,  and  the  feeble-minded. 

Physical  or  psychical  pain  is  in  proportion  to  our  sensibility, 
to  the  delicacy  of  our  senses,  to  the  intensity  of  excitation  ; 

1  Bechterev  and  Mislavsky,  Arch.  f.  Anat.  u.  Physiol,  Suppl.  p.  243,  1889 ; 
]>.  380,  1891.— Bochefontaine,  .4rc/L  de  Physiol,  pp.  140-172,  1876.— Bechterev,. 
Die  functionen  d.  Nerrencenlra,  Jena,  1908-11. 

2  W.  C.  Lombard,  Journ.  of  Physiol.,  Vol.  XIII.,  p.  1,  1892  ;— Jules  Amar, 
Le  Moteur  Humain,  p.  294  . 

3  Lennander,  Mitteilungen  aus  d.  Grcnzgeb.  d.  Med.  u.  Chir.,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  38-104 
and  164-202;    Vol.  XIII.,  pp.  303-372;    1902  and  1904. 

*Ch.  Richet,  article  on  Douleur,  in  the  Dictionn.  de  Physiol.,  Vol.  V.,p.  173. 


60  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

habit  lessens  its  effects.  The  child  who  is  accustomed  to 
having  blows  rained  upon  him,  the  pupil  or  apprentice  who  is 
constantly  subjected  to  abuse  and  insult,  no  longer  feels  more 
than  an  indifferent  amount  of  pain.  The  nervous  element 
whose  energy  has  been  exhausted  by  pain  finds  it  difficult  to 
recover  its  power  of  reaction,  its  irritability,  especially  if  it 
has  been  overcharged  by  very  powerful  and  painful  excitation. 

The  domain  of  pain  is  the  most  extensive  of  all  because 
it  embraces  the  entire  tactile  area.  And  it  is  no  less  extensive 
in  time,  for  pain  survives  in  the  consciousness  by  means  of  a 
sort  of  vibration  which  becomes  damped  but  slowly,  and  on 
the  first  opportunity  its  amplitude  is  again  increased.  This 
survival  makes  pain  a  vigilant  guide,  enabling  us  to  avoid  evil 
in  all  its  aspects  ;  it  makes  it  a  factor  of  teaching  and  discipline. 
"  Painful  emotions,"  writes  Ch.  Richet  (loc.  cit.,  p.  191),  "  move 
us  profoundly,  remaining  fixed  in  the  memory,  when  they  direct 
our  conduct.  The  whole  intellectual,  moral,  and  social  develop- 
ment of  humanity  is  the  result  of  painful  emotion  which  has 
to  be  avoided.  The  knowledge  of  things  interests  us  only 
because  it  constitutes  a  means  of  fighting  pain  more  effectually. 
Bloodless  science  does  not  stir  us  ;  it  is  not  a  guide  ;  it  is  not  a 
motive  of  action  ;  while  pain  is  the  great  motive  force  of  the 
life  of  sentient  beings." 

It  is  plain,  however,  that  in  order  to  be  salutary,  "  in 
order  to  be  the  mainspring  of  our  actions  "  (Voltaire),  pain 
must  respect  the  order  and  integrity  of  the  economy  ;  it  must 
not  give  rise  to  any  profound  disturbance  ;  it  must  threaten, 
without  irremediably  injuring.  Only  then  does  it  become  a 
factor  of  energy. 

XXVII.  The  Psycho -physical  Law.— But  that  which  in 
any  sensation  dominates  our  faculty  of  perception,  whether 
the  sensation  be  tactile,  sonorous,  or  visual,  is  the  degree 
of  that  sensation  ;  in  other  words,  it  is  the  relation  which 
our  consciousness  has  to  establish  between  the  sensation  and 
the  excitation  which  has  given  rise  to  it. 

Everyday  experience  teaches  us  that  one  person  will  appre- 
ciate a  minimum  difference  of  weight  better  than  another  ;  but 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  61 

that  the  same  difference  may  be  unperceived  when  the  weight 
itself  is  increased. 

F.  Weber  noted  that  in  order  to  be  definitely  perceptible 
the  difference  between  the  two  weights  should  represent  a 
constant  fraction,  equal  to  l-17th  of  either  of  them.1  But 
this  is  not  correct ;  the  difference  need  not  be  increased  as 
rapidly  as  the  weights  ;  in  other  words,  the  intensity  of  sensa- 
tion progresses  less  rapidly  than  the  intensity  of  stimulation,  the 
curve  of  sensation  lying  always  beneath  the  curve  of  stimula- 
tion. This  mode  of  progression  is  known  as  logarithmic ; 
it  was  recognised  by  Jacques  Bernouilli,  and  more  clearly 
defined  by  Laplace,2  in  connection  with  the  mental  good 
experienced  when  there  has  been  an  increase  of  material 
good. 

Various  writers  have  observed  that  this  is,  in  general,  the 
relation  which  exists  between  sensations  and  stimulations. 
For  example,  according  to  Nicati 3  sensations  of  luminosity 
are  in  a  logarithmic  relation  to  the  intensity  of  the  visible 
sources  of  light. 

But  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  psycho-physical  law  is  correct 
only  within  very  narrow  limits  as  regards  the  intensity  of 
excitation,  and  Fechner  was  wrong — doubly  wrong — in  calling 
it  a  "  formula  of  psychological  measurement,"  and  in  allowing 
it  to  be  described  as  "  Fechner' s  Law,"  4  for  it  is  devoid  of 
real  theoretical  or  practical  value.  "  It  will  remain,"  in  the 
words  of  James,  "  like  a  fossil  in  the  history  of  psychology."  5 

Yet  there  is,  there  must  be,  a  law  of  this  kind  ;  but  it  must 
be  more  complex,  and  time  should  figure  in  it,  for  sensation 
depends  at  once  upon  the  intensity  and  the  duration  of  the 
excitation.  By  virtue  of  its  very  nature  it  is  perfectible,  in  the 
sense  that  an  individual  constant  must  be  introduced  into  the 
expression  of  this  psycho-physical  law.  We  shall  not  attempt, 

1  E.  Weber,  Wagner's  Handwort.,  Vol.  III.,  2nd  part,  p.  481,  1846. 

2  Jacques  Bernouilli,  Ars  Conjectandi,  French  trans,  by  Vastel,  p.  61 ;  Paris, 
1801;    Laplace,  (Euvres  (authorized  ed.),  Vol.  VII.,  p.  441,  1829. 

3  Nicati,  La  psychologic  naturelle,  pp.  165,  225,  Paris,  1898. 

4  Fechner,  Elemente  der  Psychophysik,  Leipzig,  1800. 

5  W.  James,  Principles  of  Psychology,  Vol.  I.,  p.  549,  1901. 


62  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

in  a  volume  dealing  with  the  elements  of  our  subject,  to  go 
deeply  into  a  particularly  difficult  problem  of  a  mathematical 
nature. 

XXVIII.  Conclusion. — We  may  conclude,  in  a  general 
manner,  that  the  body  and  the  mind,  in  their  development, 
are  obedient,  on  the  one  hand,  to  inevitable  hereditary  influ- 
ences ;  those  influences  of  which  we  might  say,  in  the  words 
of  the  old  French  proverb,  Chassez  le  nature!,  il  revient  au  galop. 
And  again,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  subject  to  the  environ- 
ment, both  physical  and  social.  By  this  latter  I  mean  the 
complex  of  ideas,  sentiments,  and  aspirations,  of  a  more  or  less 
confused  nature,  which  shape  humanity.  Our  evolution  may 
thus  undergo  improvements,  and  may  tend  toward  perfection. 
This  is  precisely  where  education  comes  in,  a  methodical  educa- 
tion which  adapts  its  effects  to  the  age  and  the  constitution 
of  the  individual  ;  which  works  without  interruption,  but 
without  forcing  the  pace  ;  whose  principles  are  those  of  a 
healthy  culture,  not  those  of  cramming  or  over-loading. 
What  could  be  more  criminal  than  to  make  learned  men  or 
scholars  of  fifteen  years  !  Or  to  entrust  difficult  and  protracted 
tasks  to  children  who  have  not  yet  completed  their  eighteenth 
year  !  Science  denies  the  value  of  these  intemperate  methods, 
these  abuses,  which  would  pave  the  way,  did  not  the  legislator 
take  serious  precautions,  for  mis-shapen,  sickly  races,  and  a 
stunted  humanity. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  normal  development  of  the  human 
personality  is  realised  by  effective  means,  all  the  aptitudes  dis- 
play themselves,  and  unfold  completely  and  sanely.  Then  each 
individual  reveals  his  special  capacities,  whether  for  specula- 
tive science  or  for  art.  Industry,  which  should  assign  the  man  to 
the  task  which  suits  him,  in  which  he  will  turn  all  his  talents 
to  account,  will  quickly  accomplish  its  work  of  selection.  And 
the  same  in  all  the  trades  or  professions,  which  are  nowadays 
so  numerous  ;  a  judicious  examination,  a  fair  and  unerring 
investigation,  will  make  it  possible  to  apportion  the  work  of 
society,  the  task  of  eternal  progress,  among  those  whose 
competence  is  recognised.  It  is  a  matter  of  putting  the  right 


HUMAN    PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY  63 

man  in  the  right  place.  The  classification  of  men  is  not  the  same 
thing  as  their  subordination  ;  every  man  who  knows  a  trade 
and  follows  it  conscientiously  ought  to  be  proud  of  it ;  the 
task  of  the  labourer  is  one  with  the  work  of  the  engineer.  I 
will  even  go  to  the  length  of  claiming,  with  Voltaire,  that 
*'  the  man  who  devised  the  shuttle  had  the  best  of  it,  with  a 
vengeance,  over  the  man  who  conceived  the  doctrine  of 
innate  ideas." 

And  lastly,  it  would  be  merely  justice  to  take  moral  worth 
into  account ;  it  is  one  of  the  levers  of  prosperity  ;  it  is, 
in  every  way,  the  best  safeguard  against  the  temptations 
among  which  the  mind  may  suffer  shipwreck.  The  idea  of 
duty  and  responsibility  is  readily  acquired  when  it  is  taught 
from  early  youth,  and  represented  by  the  examples  of  home 
life.  It  is  thus  above  all  an  attribute  of  the  family,  and,  in 
the  long  run,  a  hereditary  virtue. 

It  appears  to  me  that  morality  is  more  highly  developed, 
at  all  events  in  France,  in  the  lower  strata  of  society  ;  it 
would  attain  an  even  higher  development  could  poverty  be 
diminished.  The  man  of  the  people  possesses  frankness  and 
sincerity  in  a  greater  degree  than  the  educated  and  refined 
member  of  society,  for  he  has  not  learned  the  art  of  disguising 
his  thought ;  he  speaks  and  acts  naturally,  and  nature  never 
deceives. 

To  the  German  physician  Mobius,  whose  theory  of  the 
intellectual  superiority  of  the  male  has  already  been  men- 
tioned (p.  42),  the  moral  equality  of  the  two  sexes  does  not 
appear  to  admit  of  any  doubt.  I  think  I  have  given  the 
strongest  reasons  for  disallowing  the  former  claim  ;  but  as 
for  the  latter,  I  will  say,  with  the  ancient  philosopher  :  "  Let 
us  not  venture  to  discuss  this  problem,  for  it  would  be  an 
offence  to  the  Divinity." 

Let  us  only  beware  lest  we  stifle,  by  means  of  injustice  and 
abuses,  the  flower  of  the  morality  of  our  race.  Let  us  do  our 
utmost  to  encourage  those  who  combine  unfailing  honesty 
with  sound  judgement,  for  they  are  the  guardians  of  the  treasure 
of  civilisation. 


CHAPTER    IV 
WORK  AND  FATIGUE 

XXIX. — It  has  already  been  explained  that  the  human 
machine  is  subject,  as  far  as  its  motive  force  is  concerned,  to 
the  same  laws  as  inanimate  motors.  In  its  cells  it  possesses 
innumerable  silent  furnaces  ;  it  feeds  itself  with  fuel  and 
oxygen  ;  it  derives,  from  the  chemical  energy  of  the  nutriment 
absorbed;  both  heat  and  work ;  it  charges  the  muscles  and 
makes  them  ready  to  contract,  thereby  actuating  the  imple- 
ments represented  by  the  robust  limbs  of  the  working-man,  the 
skilful  members  of  the  artist,  or  the  agile  digits  of  the  typist, 
the  author,  the  pianist,  or  the  seamstress. 

So  much  for  the  energy  available.  How  does  it  act  ?  And 
how  measure  it,  how  discipline  it,  how  use  it  with  care  and 
economy  ?  This  is  what  we  shall  now  briefly  consider. 

A.  MUSCULAR  ACTIVITY. — If  we  had  not,  in  the  magnitude 
of  the  respiratory  exchanges,  the  true  expression  of  all  muscular 
activity,  we  could  form  only  an  approximate  idea  of  it,  for  static 
efforts  are  not  the  same  thing  as  work  performed,  and  cannot 
be  measured,  yet  they  affect  the  resistance  of  the  organism, 
and  produce  fatigue.  It  fatigues  a  man  merely  to  remain 
standing  all  day,  overseeing  a  workshop,  even  though  he  does 
not  move  a  step. 

This  form  of  activity  is  the  least  useful.  Usually  activity 
involves  movement,  walking,  running,  or  work x  done  upon 
various  implements,  and  the  expenditure  of  both  physical  and 
intellectual  energy. 

1  Work  done  is  of  course  expressed  in  terms  of  the  effort  or  force  exerted,, 
multiplied  by  the  distance  over  which  it  is  exerted.  Thus,  when  water  is  drawn 
from  a  well,  the  factors  of  the  work  done  are  the  effort  exerted  on  the  rope  and 
the  depth  of  the  well. 

(54 


WORK   AND    FATIGUE  65 

Our  limbs  or  our  bodies  move,  actuated  by  muscular  con- 
traction. When  a  limb  moves  away  from  the  body  its  move- 
ment is  a  movement  of  abduction,  and  when  it  draws  nearer 
to  the  body  its  movement  is  a  movement  of  adduction.  Its 
ventral  position  (the  fore-arm  outstretched,  with  the  palm 
of  the  hand  turned  downward)  represents  the  movement  of 
pronation ;  the  contrary  or  dorsal  position  represents  the 
movement  of  supination. 

Not  only  does  it  assume  a  variety  of  positions,  but  the 
same  limb  will  involve,  according  to  circumstances,  the 
contraction  of  different  muscles,  which  combine  and  harmonise 
their  effects.  One  supposes,  for  example,  that  the  muscles 
of  the  upper  arm  actuate  the  fore-arm.  But  the  muscles  of 
the  shoulder  help  to  do  so  more  effectually,  the  former  acting 
upon  the  elbow  when  an  effort  of  simple  traction  by  the  hands 
is  intended.  The  highly  flexible  articulation  of  the  wrist  is 
hardly  subjected  to  any  effort ;  it  is  very  delicate,  moreover,  and 
better  adapted  to  perform  quick  movements  than  forcible  ones. 

To  the  action  of  the  muscles  which  produce  the  movement 
is  added  that  of  their  antagonists,  as  in  the  case  of  the  flexor 
and  extensor  muscles  ;  and  it  is  thanks  to  a  combination  of 
muscular  efforts  that  we  are  able  to  move  a  limb  in  the  direc- 
tion and  with  the  degree  of  celerity  desired.  It  would  not, 
therefore,  be  sufficient,  did  we  wish  to  estimate  the  muscular 
work  performed  in  flexing  the  fore-arm,  to  know  the  force 
exerted  by  the  biceps  and  the  magnitude  of  the  movement ; 
we  should  also  require  to  know  what  force  was  exerted,  what 
work  done,  by  the  triceps,  its  antagonist.  The  muscular 
system,  as  we  know,  acts  under  the  control  of  co-ordinated 
nervous  excitations,  each  group  of  muscles  acting  synergeti- 
cally.  For  example,  if  we  wish  to  raise  our  arms,  the 
abductor,  adductor,  and  levator  muscles  intervene,  the 
first  helping  to  carry  the  arm  forward  or  backward.  If  we 
wish  to  lower  the  same  limbs,  the  depressors  will  then  come 
into  play,  not  as  antagonists  of  the  levators,  but  as  moderators 
of  the  falling  movement.  The  brachial  biceps,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  not  exclusively  a  flexor  muscle  ;  it  is  also  a  supinator  ; 
we  feel  its  distension  when  we  turn  a  stiff  key. 


66  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

The  rectus  femoris  (see  Fig.  11)  is  not  merely  an  extensor  of 
the  lower  leg  ;  it  is  also  a  flexor  and  levator  of  the  thigh,  and 
serves  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  hips. 

The  modalities  of  muscular  action  are  numerous,  and  are 
not  without  influence  upon  the  degree  of  fatigue ;  we  ought 
to  understand  how  to  confine  muscular  action  to  the  strictly 
useful  effect,  with  the  smallest  expenditure  of  energy ;  it  is 
important  to  avoid  superfluous  contractions,  and  movements 
in  which  part  of  the  effort  is  wasted  or  annulled.  This 
economy  is  of  the  greatest  value  in  prothesis  after  amputation. 

Sports  and  games,  notably  boxing  and  fencing,  are  in 
certain  senses  comparable  to  industrial  labour  ;  but  in  them 
the  elimination  of  useless  movements  has  been  brought  to  a 
much  higher  pitch.  Good  athletes  are  careful  to  avoid  such 
movements,  for  their  reputations,  and  sometimes  their  lives, 
are  involved.  Physical  education  must  employ  the  same 
economy,  for  the  sake  both  of  discipline  and  of  health. 

Use  educates  the  activity  of  the  muscles,  and  produces 
perfect  regularity  ;  automatism,  thanks  to  the  bulbar  reflexes, 
takes  charge  of  our  movements,  and  a  kind  of  dynamic 
instinct  eventually  imposes  its  sovereign  laws  upon  the  human 
machine. 

XXX.  The   Measurement   of   Muscular   Activity. — The 

direct  evaluation  of  all  these  forces  is  interesting  work.  To 
begin  with,  it  gives  us  information  concerning  the  difficulty  of 
this  or  that  handicraft,  and  enables  us  to  determine  if  it  can  be 
practised  by  women,  or  children,  or  even  by  invalided  soldiers, 
or  the  cripples  of  war  and  industry.  It  is  equally  necessary 
if  we  are  to  appreciate  the  progress  of  physical  education  and 
the  restoration  of  muscular  strength,  and  to  compare  the 
work  accomplished  with  the  energy  expended  upon  it — a 
comparison  which  tells  us  if  a  good  or  a  bad  output,  or  ratio 
of  efficiency,  is  being  obtained. 

We  obtain  these  measurements  of  forces  by  means  of 
graphic  methods,  by  direct  registration,  according  to  the  rules 
formulated  fifty  years  ago  by  the  famous  French  physiologist, 
Marey  (1830-1904). 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE 


67 


The  muscles  are  made  to  act  upon  springs  which,  under 
the  conditions  of  the  experiment,  undergo  compression  and  a 
slight  change  of  form.  Each  of  these  springs  terminates  in  a 
disc.  This  compresses  a  small  rubber  ball.  This  ball,  by 
means  of  a  flexible  tube,  is  connected  with  a  small  metallic 
cup,  over  which  a  rubber  membrane  is  stretched.  This  is 
known  as  a  Marey  tambour  (Fig.  19).  Compression  of  the 
ball  produces  a  pressure  of  air  in  the  tambour,  and  raises  the 


FIG.  19. — Diagram  of  Recording  or  Graphic  Dynamometer. 


recording  lever  or  stylus  which  is  actuated  by  the  membrane. 
If  we  arrange  the  stylus  in  contact  with  a  recording  cylinder, 
such  as  is  fitted  to  a  recording  aneroid  barometer,  we  shall 
obtain  a  written  record  of  the  muscular  efforts  exerted,  ampli- 
fied to  the  desired  extent  (Fig.  20). 

I  have  applied  myself  to  devising  dynamographic  apparatus 
which  can  be  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  tools,  and  which  give  me, 
under  any  circumstances,  clear  and  faithful  graphic  records. 

If  it  is  desired,  for  example,  to  analyse  the  efforts  F  and  F1, 
exerted  by  a  man  using  a  file  in  finishing  steel  or  brass,  the 
tool  is  fitted  with  suitable  attachments  precisely  where  it  is 
gripped  by  the  hands,  and  these  attachments  are  connected 
with  Marey  tambours  mounted  on  a  carriage.  In  this  way 
we  may  record  all  the  forces  in  action,  and  all  the  components 
of  these  forces.  It  will  readily  be  perceived  that  the  vertical 
components,  V  and  V1,  combine  to  press  down  upon  the  file  and 


68 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


to  make  it  bite,  while  the  horizontal  efforts,  H  and  H1,  cause 
the  sliding  motion,  and  therefore  perform  the  useful  work 
(Fig.  21). 


FIG.  20. — Recordi 


ler  with  Marey  Recording  Drums,  arranged  to  record 


Jylmcler  with  Marey  Kecoramg  ur 
the  Efforts  of  a  Man  filing  Metal. 


Fig.  22  shows  the  file  with  its  dynamographic  attachments  ; 
to  these  must  be  added  a  special  support,  which  measures 
the  pressure  exerted  upon  the  block  of  metal. 


FIG.  21. — Analysis  of  the  Efforts  exerted  in  filing  Metal. 

The  file  is  fitted  at  its  free  extremity,  at  D,  with  springs, 
each  of  which  compresses  a  rubber  ball,  the  attachments  of 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE 


69 


which  record  the  pushing 
force  and  the  pressure  of 
the  left  hand  ;  while  the 
handle  encloses  a  spiral 
spring,  S,  and  a  rubber 
ball,  B,  which  actuates 
the  stylus  recording  the 
pushing  effort  of  the 
right  hand.  For  detailed 
calculations  we  must  refer 
the  reader  to  our  volume 
on  Lemoteur  humain  (pp. 
528-552),  which  shows 
how  a  number  of  tools 
and  implements  may  be 
adapted  for  dynamo- 
graphic  purposes  (spade, 
hammer,  shears,  wheel- 
barrow, etc.).  However, 
we  shall  once  more,  in 
these  pages,  describe  the 
registering  jointing-plane 
and  the  registering  spade. 
The  thrust  of  the  arm, 
acting  upon  the  handle 
of  the  plane  (Fig.  23),  is 
decomposed  into  the  hori- 
zontal effort  which  moves 
the  tool,  and  the  vertical 
effort,  which  presses  the 
tool  upon  the  plank  to 
be  planed.  By  means  of 
rubber  attachments  suit- 
ably disposed  this  pres- 
sure is  measured,  as  well 
as  the  total  force  exerted 
upon  the  handle  ;  from 
these  data  the  horizontal 


70  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

component  is  deduced,  which  in  this  case  represents  the 
resistance  offered  by  the  wood  to  the  iron  of  the  plane. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  plank  is  placed  between  two- 
parallel  guides,  which  may  at  will  be  adjusted  at  varying 
distances  from  each  other.  On  each  guide  is  fixed,  along  its 
entire  length,  a  veiy  flexible  rubber  tube,  which  is  pressed  out 
of  normal  shape  by  the  lightest  contact  of  the  plane.  If  we 
connect  these  tubes  with  Marey  tambours,  we  obtain  a  written 
record  of  the  jerks  resulting  from  unskilful  movements  on  the 
part  of  the  worker. 


FIG.  23.— Registering  Jointing-Plane. 

Lastly,  the  attachments  which  enable  us  to  render  a  spade 
dynamographic,  whether  it  be  employed  in  excavation,, 
embanking,  etc.,  or  in  agricultural  operations,  are  shown  in 
Fig.  24  ;  they  register  the  total  thrust,  or  resistance  of  the  soil, 
and  the  efforts  exerted  in  removing  the  spadeful  of  material 
excavated. 

XXXI.  The  Measurement  of  Speed  or  Pace. — As  for  the 

rapidity  of  voluntary  movements,  it  is  possible  to  measure  this 
simultaneously  with  the  measurements  of  the  efforts  put  forth, 
by  the  employment  of  a  rapid  chronograph  measuring  fractions 
of  a  second.  Even  with  the  fingers,  which  are  the  most  agile 
members,  it  is  unusual  to  accomplish  more  than  seven  move- 
ments per  second.  Taking  the  case  of  the  self-registering 
plane,  we  can  make  sure  of  regularity  of  movement  at  any 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE 


71 


Dynamographic 
Spade 


FIG.  24. — D.ynamographic  Spade  (detailed  Section.) 


72  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

given  speed  ;  while  the  number  of  jerks  to  right  or  left  regis- 
tered upon  the  recording  cylinder  will  inform  us  of  the  faults 
to  be  corrected. 

One  might  also  make  use  of  the  cinematograph,  recording 


FIG.  25. — Graphic  Record  of  the  Work  of  a  good  Workman  using 
the  File. 

on  a  film  run  at  a  known  speed  the  various  positions  of  the 
tool. 

This  method  also  enables  us  to  note  all  the  attitudes  assumed 
by  the  body  during  work,  and  enables  us  to  recognise  any 
defects.  Lastly,  following  the  example  of  Dr.  Gilbreth,  we 
may  attach  a  small  incandescent  light  to  the  worker's  hand, 
and  obtain,  by  means  of  photography,  the  cycle  of  his  move- 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE  73 

ments.  Cyclography,  if  not  an  original  method,  has  certain 
advantages  which  we  cannot  go  into  here.1 

The  combined  graphic  record  will  enable  us  to  note  the  order 
and  the  intensity  of  the  muscular  efforts  exerted,  their  rapidity, 
and  their  degree  of  regularity  or  uniformity,  all  these  details 
being  recorded  with  admirable  fidelity  and  clearness.  To 
these  we  may  add  the  record  of  the  respiratory  efforts  (Fig.  25). 
The  active  life  of  the  worker  has  placed,  so  to  speak,  on  the 
paper  of  the  graph  an  indelible  imprint,  its  personal  signature. 

XXXII. — B.  THE  EXPENDITURE  OF  ENERGY. — To  the  work 
thus  performed  by  the  man,  and  graphically  measured,  corre- 
sponds an  expenditure  of  energy  levied  upon  the  reserves  of 
the  organism;  not  upon  the  nutriments  which  have  just  been 
absorbed,  but  upon  those  which  the  body-cells  have  had  the 
time  to  elaborate,  to  fix,  to  bring  to  that  particular  state  which 
enables  them  to  become  readily  oxidised,  and  to  produce  energy. 

The  expenditure  of  energy  is  in  proportion  to  the  activity  of 
the  muscles,  to  the  synergetic  sum  of  their  contractions; 
intensity,  rapidity,  and  duration  all  being  comprised  in  this 
activity,  which  extends  to  the  nervous  as  well  as  to  the  mus- 
cular element.  And  all  this  produces  fatigue,  and  regulates 
the  consumption  of  oxygen  respired,  adding  a  further  quantity 
to  that  which  we  already  absorb  during  periods  of  repose. 
The  total  energy  of  the  active  man  is  thus  a  sum,  in  which  one 
of  the  terms,  that  corresponding  with  periods  of  repose,  under- 
goes hardly  any  variation,  when  the  external  temperature  is 
constant,  while  the  other  term  increases  in  proportion  to  the 
muscular  activity. 

Without  entering  into  lengthy  details  concerning  the 
measurement  of  the  volume  of  oxygen  consumed,  we  will 
explain,  as  an  example,  the  principle  of  our  method.  The 
person  experimented  upon  breathes  through  the  mouth, 
which  is  convenient  in  the  event  of  great  fatigue — the  nostrils 
being  compressed  by  a  little  wooden  clip,  with  padded  jaws. 
A  tube  fitted  with  a  two-way  valve  is  held,  by  means  of  a 
rubber  mouthpiece,  between  the  lips  and  teeth ;  the  outer 

1  See  theRevue  de  Metallurgie,  p.  203,  April,  1915; — Revue  generale  des  Sciences, 
p.  173,  1916. 


74 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


atmosphere  is  breathed  in  through  one  valve  ;  it  is  expired 
through  the  other  valve  into  a  rubber  tube,  passing  through 
a  bell-shaped  container  C  and  a  gasmeter  G  (Fig.  26).  The 
container  is  connected,  by  means  of  a  fine  rubber  tube,  with 


FIG.  26. — Respiration  Gauge. 

a  system  of  reservoirs  containing  mercury,  R  and  R.1  Accord- 
ingly as  R  empties  itself  into  R1  or  the  reverse,  some  of  the 
air  expired  is  shunted,  or  the  sample  contained  in  R  is  passed 
into  a  eudiometer  for  analysis. 

We  thus  obtain  the  total  volume  of  the  air  respired,  or  the 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE  75 

pulmonary  ventilation  effected  during  the  experiment,  and  also 
the  composition  of  the  air  expired. 

Normally  the  atmosphere  surrounding  us  contains  21  per 
cent,  of  oxygen,  reckoning  by  volume.  As  there  is  less  than 
this  in  the  air  expired,  the  difference  represents  the  quantity 
consumed  by  the  organism.1 

Such,  briefly  described,  is  the  respiration  gauge,  which 
enables  us  to  estimate  the  expenditure  of  energy.  It  is 
mounted  on  a  table  running  on  rubber-tired  wheels,  which 
rolls  to  and  fro  without  jarring  the  instrument,  following  the 
subject  as  he  moves  to  and  fro,  enabling  us  to  investigate 
normal  or  pathological  locomotion,  or  physical  exercises,  or 
mechanical  labour. 

The  mouthpiece  is  easily  kept  in  the  mouth,  without  any 
inconvenience  to  the  subject,  whatever  the  length  of  the 
experiment. 

Knowing  the  total  volume  of  oxygen  utilised  by  the  organ- 
ism, we  estimate  it  in  terms  of  calories,  as  has  already  been 
explained,  at  the  rate  of  4-9  calories  per  litre.  We  thus  obtain 
the  expression  of  the  energy  developed  by  vital  combustion. 

The  distribution  of  this  energy  is  of  a  multiple  character. 
It  maintains  the  deep-seated  physiological  activities  :  the 
movements  and  the  nutrition  of  the  circulatory,  respiratory, 
and  digestive  systems.  It  maintains  the  temperature  of  the 
body  at  a  constant  level,  making  up  for  the  losses  which  it 
suffers  by  contact  with  the  air  and  by  radiation.  Lastly, 
it  provides  for  the  intense  activity  of  the  muscles  and  the 
less  onerous  task  of  the  nervous  tissues.  While  in  the  case  of 
an  adult  the  expenditure  of  energy  during  repose  amounts 
on  an  average  to  2,100  calories  during  the  twenty-four  hours, 
cold  increases  it ;  in  the  winter,  with  the  thermometer  only 
a  few  degrees  above  freezing-point,  it  amounts  to  3,500  calories, 
while  in  summer,  with  a  temperature  of  77°  to  86°  Fahr.,  it  falls 
to  about  1,800  calories. 

1  Thus,  we  may  find,  in  the  eudimometer,  17  per  cent,  of  oxygen  instead  cf 
21  per  cent.,  or  a  difference  of  4  per  cent.,  when,  if  the  total  volume  respired  is 

150  X  4 
150  litres,  the  product   -         —  gives  the  total  consumption  of  oxygen,  or  (> 


litres. 


100 


76  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

If  we  reckon  that  the  heaviest  day's  work  consumes  from 
2,000  to  2,500  calories,  and  add  this  to  the  foregoing  values, 
we  reach  a  total  of  4,000  calories  in  summer — but  the  heat, 
which  diminishes  the  energy  of  the  muscles,  often  makes  it 
impossible  to  attain  this — and  5,000  to  6,000  calories  in  winter, 
as  the  daily  ration  of  labour. 

This  varying  expenditure  is  maintained  by  means  of  alimen- 
tation ;  but  it  is  a  notable  fact  that  whereas  any  substance 
which  can  be  burned  can  be  employed  in  a  heat  motor,  this 
is  not  the  case  with  the  living  organism,  for  the  latter  is  not 
indifferent  to  the  quality  of  combustible  supplied  to  it.  It 
can  utilise  as  aliment  any  substance  which  it  can  elaborate  in 
such  a  way  that  it  may  be  stored  in  the  body  cells.  This  is  the 
only  store  which  it  can  exploit  immediately  and  without 
loss,  and  which  is  able  to  ensure  its  uninterrupted  upkeep. 
The  expenditure  of  energy  is  continuous,  for  any  interruption 
would  be  a  sign  of  death.  Life,  therefore,  is  energy. 

XXXIII. — C.  FATIGUE. — The  physiological  point  of  view 
offers  this  inestimable  advantage  over  any  other  point  of 
view,  that  it  reveals  the  effects  of  excessive  fatigue,  and 
furnishes  us  with  means  of  ensuring  that  it  shall  not  exceed 
the  limits  of  the  normal.  But  for  this  physical  training 
would  be  a  fallacy  ;  it  would  lead  to  overwork  ;  it  would  not 
accomplish  its  aim.  It  must  be  added  that  organic  disorders 
and  affections  of  the  nervous  centres  have  become  more 
frequent  than  humanity  has  ever  known  them  as  a  result  of 
this  terrible  war.  Deficient  cardiac  activity  is  particularly  to 
be  looked  for  in  discharged  and  wounded  soldiers  and  war- 
cripples.  It  is  therefore  a  most  important  matter  to  investi- 
gate the  indications  of  fatigue. 

Fatigue  is  the  result  of  muscular  and  nervous  phenomena 
which  give  rise  to  an  increasing  malaise  or  uneasiness,  and 
above  all  a  feeling  of  impotence.  This  feeling  progresses 
through  every  stage,  from  a  mere  lassitude  to  the  acutest 
suffering,  and  it  persists  for  a  varying  space  of  time.  It 
arises  from  various  sources  of  excitation  ;  from  the  nervous 
fibres  which  terminate,  as  has  already  been  explained,  in  the 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE  77 

muscles  and  tendons,  and  on  the  articular  surfaces,  and 
from  the  coverings  of  the  viscera,  in  which  Lennander  has 
localised  the  origin  of  organic  pain  ;  thence  it  assumes  a  general 
character,  and  eventually  embraces  the  whole  extent  of  the 
body.  For  fatigue  is  fundamentally  an  intoxication  ;  if  the 
brain  and  the  muscles  function  in  a  disorderly  fashion,  as 
a  result  of  excessive  efforts,  or  too  great  a  rate  of  exertion, 
the  blood  is  no  longer  able  to  cope  with  its  task  of  purification. 
The  waste  products  of  this  intense  cellular  activity  accumu- 
late ;  the  blood,  loaded  with  toxic  products,  produces  fatigue 
in  any  animal  into  whose  veins  it  is  irjected.  It  acts  to  begin 
with  upon  the  periphery,  the  seat  of  the  sensitive  fibres,  so 
that  even  though  the  brain  alone  has  been  working,  fatigue 
affects  the  muscular  organs.  It  is  a  singular  paradox  to  pre- 
tend, as  certain  pedagogues  have  done,  that  the  mind  may  be 
refreshed  by  the  fatigue  of  the  body  !  It  is  as  good  as  a  con- 
fession that  they  have  never  fatigued  either. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  essential  to  distinguish  between 
fatigue  and  pain,  for  pain  may  often  be  wholly  accidental, 
the  result  of  an  excessive  or  clumsy  effort,  or  a  faulty  attitude, 
or  a  pathological  condition  ;  in  these  various  instances  it  is, 
moreover,  confined  to  the  limb  or  the  organ  affected,  and  does 
not  invade  the  whole  system.  Neither  in  the  organisation  of 
physical  education  nor  in  that  of  mechanical  labour  should  there 
be  any  room  for  this  sensation  ;  for  it  signifies  a  vicious  method. 

A  look-out  for  the  signs  of  fatigue  should  be  kept  in  respect 
of  all  the  functions  of  life.  To-day  such  investigations  have 
hardly  commenced.1  Let  us  consider  the  facts. 

XXXIV.— (1.)  The  Circulation  of  the  Blood.— We  cannot 
in  this  place  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  technical  methods 
employed  in  such  observations.  We  will  only  remark  that 

1  A.  Mosso,  La  Fatigue  (French  translation  by  Langlois),  1894 ; — Jules  Amar, 
Observations  sur  la  fatigue  professionelle  ( Journal  de  Physiologie,  pp.  178-202, 
1914) ; — Stanley  Kent,  Interim  Report  on  an  Investigation  of  Industrial  Fatigue 
by  physiological  methods.  White  Paper  published  by  H.M.  Stationery  Office, 
1915.  Second  Interim  Report  on  an  Investigation  of  Industrial  Fatigue  by 
physiological  methods.  Blue  Book  published  by  H.M.  Stationery  Office,  1916. 
Health  of  Munition  Workers'  Committee.  Interim  Report.  Blue  Book 
published  by  H.M.  Stationery  Office,  1917. 


78  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

the  person  to  be  experimented  on  works  an  ergometric  cycle, 
of  which  we  shall  have  more  to  say  presently.  He  actuates 
the  pedals  by  the  contractions  of  the  leg  muscles,  or  he  works 
a  crank  by  contracting  the  muscles  of  the  arms  (Fig.  27). 

Records  are  taken  of  his  heart-beats  and  of  his  pulse,  and  the 
arterial  pressure  is  measured  ;  the  first  two  operations  are 
effected  by  means  of  the  cardiograph  and  the  sphijgmograph 


FIG.  27. — Taking  a  Graphic  Record  of  the  Pulse  during  an  experimental 
Investigation  of  Fatigue. 

(Marey),  and  the  second  by  means  of  Pachon's  oscillometer, 
which  gives  the  systolic  and  diastolic  pressures  successively — 
that  is,  the  highest  and  the  lowest.  However,  I  advise  the 
experimenter  to  content  himself  with  the  record  given  by  the 
cardiograph  ;  this  instrument,  applied  as  in  Fig.  28,  remains 
in  place  while  the  subject  is  exerting  his  strength,  and  its 
indications  are  sufficiently  reliable. 

The  results  of  such  experiments  are  interesting.     Gradually, 
as  the  muscles  continue  to  work  in  a  normal  and  regular  fashion, 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE 


79 


the  frequency  of  the  pulse  continues  to  increase  ;  but  pro- 
vided that  a  maximum  of  two  hours  of  work  is  followed  by  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  of  repose,  the  average  frequency  does  not 
exceed  120  pulse  beats  per  minute,  or  about  50  beats  per  minute 
more  than  during  repose  ;  and  it  tends  to  remain  constant. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  pace  of  the  work  done  exceeds  the 


FIG.  28. — Cardiograph  and  Pneumograph  in  Position. 


usual  limits,  the  pulsations  become  more  rapid,  quickly  attain- 
ing a  rate  of  130,  140,  and  even  160  per  minute.  Such  a  rate 
as  the  last  is  most  unpleasant  and  injurious  ;  fortunately  it  is 
fairly  unusual,  except  in  athletic  sports  (running,  rowing). 

But  even  when  the  number  of  pulsations,  as  a  result  of  a 
moderate  effort  combined  with  a  rapid  pace,  rises  only  to  120, 


80 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


to  prolong  the  duration  of  the  effort  fatigues  the  circulatory 
system.  This  fatigue  reveals  itself  by  a  regular  decrease  of 
frequency,  the  latter  finally  falling  to  100,  or  sometimes  to  96. 
The  heart  is  no  longer  able  to  respond  to  the  pace  of  the  effort, 
and  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  organism.  The  physiological 
synergy  is  deranged,  if  not  destroyed  (Fig.  29).  Directly 
the  observer  notes  this  discordance  between  the  muscular 
and  cardiac  functions  he  should  bring  the  experiment  to  a 
close,  or  at  all  events  greatly  moderate  its  pace. 


118 

1 

'20 

--.. 

24 

A 

8 

115. 

14 

•*L. 

110 

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05 

16 

08 

1 

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02 
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18 

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7 

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38^ 

3757 

\ 

96 

W 

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c: 

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t. 

i 

FIG.  29.— Rhythm  of  the  Heart  during  Work  (a  Case  of  Fatigue). 

The  cardiac  curves  give  us  quite  as  much  information 
concerning  the  cardiac  rhythm  as  do  the  graphs  of  the  pulse. 
We  further  learn  from  them  that  the  amplitude,  that  is, 
the  force  of  the  hear t-b eats >  increases,  and  that  the  heart  under- 
goes a  slight  and  temporary  increase  in  volume.  This  latter 
fact  has  been  observed  by  fatiguing  the  subject  by  causing 
him  to  walk  upon  a  rolling  track,  and  subjecting  the  thoracic 
cage  to  radioscopic  examination.1 

1  Zuntz  and  Nicolai,  Berl.  Klin.  Wochensch.,  No.  18,  1914. 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE 


81 


The  ratio 


diastole 


=  about  2,  or  even  1-50;  the  contraction 


systole 

of  the  auricles  is  accentuated,  and  the  right-hand  undulation 
of  the  systolic  plateau  descends  toward  the  lower  third  of  the 
curve,  its  normal  position  being  in  the  upper  portion.  The 
aspect  of  the  tracing  taken  during  fatigue  is  characteristic 
(Fig.  30).  It  denotes  a  sudden  expansion  of  the  ventricles, 
and  an  absence  of  sustained  cardiac  effort.  Careful  scrutinv 


Resting 


Medium  Fatigue 


240  Later. 

extensions  oF  both  arms. 


60  Movements  per  minu( 
(Normal  subject,  A. 6) 


Great  Fatigue  360  movements  in  4  minutes   30  sec. 

fx  A 


Time  in  fifths  of  a  second. 


FIG.  30. — Graphic  Record  of  the  Heart  of  a  young  Gymnast  (at  Rest  and  during  Fatigue). 

of  the  curve  enables  us  to  detect  a  kind  of  periodicity  in  the 
systoles,  producing  a  striking  type  of  record  (Fig.  31).  We 
need  not,  therefore,  linger  over  its  description,  still  less  over 
its  interpretation. 

As  for  arterial  pressure,  this  amounts  to  15  to  16  centi- 
metres (about  6-0  to  6-5  inches)  during  repose,  but  often 
attains  as  much  as  33  centimetres  (about  12-5  inches)  during 
exertion  ;  this  too  diminishes  during  extreme  fatigue.  Under 
conditions  of  medium  activity,  when  the  heart  is  still  per- 


82  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

forming  its  functions  in  a  regular  manner,  the  systolic  pressure 
varies  but  slightly,  oscillating  about  a  value  of  25  centi- 
metres (10  inches). 

We  now  perceive  the  nature  of  the  indications  of  normal 
labour,  which  does  not  expose  the  subject  to  the  danger  of  over- 
exertion;  the  frequency  of  the  heart-beats  should  be  from  1 15  to  120, 
and  the  cardiograms  should  show  signs  of  a  systolic  plateau,  the 
undulation  forming  it  being  rather  lower  than  during  repose  ;  the 


FIG.  31. — Cardiograms  during  Repose  and  extreme  Fatigue 
(normal  Subject). 

maximum  arterial  pressure  should  be  25  centimetres  (10  inches). 
Athletic  exercises,  which  often  overwork  the  cardiac  muscle, 
render  its  previous  examination  absolutely  necessary.  The 
high  pressure  and  abundant  flow  of  the  blood-stream,  no  less 
than  its  adequate  renewal,  are  indispensable  in  the  intense 
physical  life  of  the  athlete,  as  in  all  heavy  mechanical  labour. 

XXXV. — (2.)  Respiration. — Fatigue  affects  the  respiratory 
function  perhaps  even  more  rapidly  than  the  cardiac  function. 
Not  only  does  respiration  become  extremely  frequent :  it  also 
ceases  to  be  regular;  it  is  dyspnceic,  and  of  a  jerky  character. 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE 


83 


The  respirations  may  be  registered  by  means  of  the  double 
pneumograph,  applied  to  the  chest  by  means  of  a  tape  surround- 
ing the  thorax,  or,  better  still,  to  the  back,  where  it  is  less 
likely  to  inconvenience  the  worker  (see  Fig.  28). 

The  tracings  of  the  pneumograph  express  the  variations  of 
amplitude  and  rhythm  occurring  in  the  thorax,  as  its  muscles 
^re  more  or  less  contracted  (Fig.  32).  But  we  may  connect  a 
special  attachment  with  the  mouthpiece  of  the  respiration 


FIG.  32. — Respiratory  Tracings  taken  by  Means  of  the  Pneumograph 
(normal  Subject,  working  a  Cycle). 


gauge  (as  shown  in  Fig.  33),  and  record  the  movements  of  the 
breath  in  the  lungs,  thus  obtaining  what  are  known  as  tono- 
•grams  (Fig.  34)  ;  records,  that  is,  of  the  variations  of  pressure 
(from  the  Greek  TOVO;,  pressure).  For  this  purpose  the 
"valve  is  fitted  with  a  stopper  which  is  traversed  by  a  small 
tube,  which  receives  a  rubber  tube  connected  with  a  Marey 
tambour  and  recording  cylinder.  Pneumograms  and  tono- 
•grams  combine  to  provide  us  with  a  complete  analysis  of  the 


84  THE   PHYSIOLOGY   OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

respiratory  function  ;  the  tonograms  being  more  accurate  and 
more  significant  of  the  actual  condition  of  the  pulmonary 
cavities.  Both  forms  of  tracing  reveal  the  derangements 
which  may  occur  in  the  lungs  themselves,  or  in  the  muscular 


PIG.  33. — Showing  the  Valve  of  the  respiration  gauge  fitted  with  a  "  Shunt "  for 
making  tonographic  tracings,  also  the  employment  of  the  pneumograph 
(young  Athlete,  18  years  of  age,  A.G.). 

system  which  causes  the  lungs  to  perform  their  function  (Figs.  35 
and  36). 

We  know  that  during  repose  the  duration  of  the  expiration, 

g 
e,  is  at  "east  double  that  of  the  inspiration,1  z.     The  ratio-  is 

1  The  difference  is  generally  taken  to  be  less  than  this. — (Ed.) 


WORK   AND    FATIGUE 


85 


progressively  diminished  during  fatigue,  while  the  respirations 
become  deeper  and  deeper.     At  a  certain  point  this  ratio  - 


becomes  greatly  diminished,  the  ventilation  of  the  lungs  is 
no  longer  ample,  and  the  flow  or  delivery  of  air  is  less  con- 
siderable. The  volume  of  air  expired  per  minute,  which 
previously  underwent  a  progressive  increase — it  usually  attains 


86 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


a  figure  of  20  litres  during  labour — tends  to  diminish.  Thus, 
during  a  case  of  normal  fatigue  the  following  readings  were 
obtained  on  the  respiration  gauge  : 

During  repose,  average  delivery  per  minute,  7  litres. 


FIG.  35. — Tracings  of  deep  Respiration  during  rapid  Work  (Pneumograms  and 
Tonograms). 


Working  the  cycle,  192  revolutions  per  minute,  load  on  brake  2  kilogrammes : 
13-20,  19-80,  20-75,  21-35,  20-70,  19-70,  22-50,  20-85,  22v5,  20-0,  22-0,  20-40, 
20-60,  19-50,  20-90  litres.  Or  an  average  of  20-25  litres. 

The  curve  shown  in  Fig.  37  shows  a  plateau  signifying 
a  phase  of  constant  ventilation,  which  disappears  only  on  the 
threshold  of  the  dangerous  phase,  that  is,  the  phase  of  over- 
exertion. 

We  may  therefore  assert  that  while  normal  exertion  increases 
the  ventilation  of  the  lungs,  and  even  slightly  increases  the- 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE 


87 


diameter  of  the  bronchial  tubes,1  great  fatigue  diminishes  the 
regularity  of  the  gaseous  exchanges  ;  it  is  then  that  carbonic 
acid  gas,  a  toxic  product  of  the  vital  combustion,  accumulates 


in  the  blood  and  causes  breathlessness,  while  the  resistance 
of  the  nervous  centres,  and  consequently  the  muscular  energy, 
rapidly  diminishes. 

1  Haldane  and  Douglas,  Journal  of  Physiclcgy,  Vol.  XLV.,  p.  235,  1912-1913 ; 
— Krogh  and  Lindhard,  ibid,,  Vol.  XLVIL,  p.  30, 1914 ;—  Krogh,  The  Respiratory 
Exchanges  of  Animals  and  Man,  London,  1916. 


88  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

The  most  elementary  observation  shows  also  that  the 
respiratory  troubles  of  fatigue  are  due  far  less  to  exaggerated 
muscular  effort  than  to  the  excessive  rapidity  of  the  muscular 
contractions,  which  produces  a  lack  of  harmony  between  the 
synergetic  rhythms  of  the  vital  functions. 

It  is  to  be  noted,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  respiration 
becomes  prolonged  whenever  a  great  effort  of  some  duration 
is  exerted  (Fig.  37) ;  a  nervous  ramus,  emanating  from  the 
bulb,  gives  rise,  in  particular,  to  a  prolonged  expiration. 
But  a  sustained  effort  tends  to  become  impossible  in  the 
fatigued  state  of  the  organism,  because  the  bulbar  intoxica- 
tion precipitates  the  activity  of  the  nerves  and  throws  it  out 


Normal    Curve  of   Pulmonary    Ventilation 

207521.35        Average,  20'25  litres  (35 -6  pints) 

— — i — i — i — p]  " — — — — 

\  5tf>\gth\7th  \gth  \ 


Working 
FlQ.  37. — Curve  of  Pulmonary  Ventilation. 

of  gear ;  the  expirations  become  short  and  jerky,  a  sign  of 
breathlessness.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  store  up  oxygen 
by  means  of  a  very  deep  inspiration,  and  to  prolong  the 
duration  of  the  expiration  ;  but  this  cannot  be  done  often, 
nor  for  longer  than  two  minutes.  The  Arab  divers  of  Ceylon, 
whose  trade  is  sponge-fishing,  remain  under  water  for  90 
seconds.1  Despite  this  effort,  which  appears  to  immobilise 
the  thoracic  cage,  the  breath  oscillates  in  the  lungs,  as  is  shown 
by  a  tonogram.  The  lungs  retain  their  rhythm  and  their 
amplitude  (Fig.  39). 

Let  us  now  measure  the  consumption  of  oxygen  :  we  shall 
find  that  it  increases,  under  the  same  conditions  of  labour, 
with  the  advance  of  fatigue.  The  muscular  engine  yields  a 
poorer  and  poorer  output ;  it  becomes  less  efficient ;  it  begins 

1Vernon,   Amer.   Journ.  of  PhysioL,  Vol.  XXL,  p.  126. 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE  89 

to  waste  energy.  On  the  other  hand,  I  have  observed  a  greater 
efficiency,  an  economy,  when  the  effort  and  the  pace  were 
moderated  so  that  the  work  was  accomplished  without  great 
fatigue.1 

At  what  inferior  ratio  of  efficiency  are  we  to  regard  the 
-continuation  of  work  as  dangerous  ?  This  is  a  very  complex 
problem,  for  the  yield  depends  upon  the  worker  himself ;  it 
is  a  personal  coefficient ;  it  has  reference  to  a  plainly  specified 
sphere  of  activity,  and  cannot  be  applied  generally  to  all.  We 


FIG.  38. — Pneumograms  showing  the  expiratory  Arrest  of  the  thoracic  Rhythm 
during  a  Static  Effort. 


should  have  to  make  some  sort  of  experiments  in  order  to 
estimate  the  depreciation  suffered  by  fatigued  muscles. 
Moreover,  such  a  thing  may  occur  as  static  fatigue,  produced 
not  by  movements,  whether  useful  or  useless,  but  by  the  mere 
fact  of  exerting  force  ;  this  exhausts  the  peripheral  nerve- 
terminals  2,  and  complicates  the  interpretation  of  the  re- 
spiratory phenomena,  which  are  consequently  no  longer 
exclusive  of  all  other  physiological  data. 

1  Lc  Moteur  Humain,  p.  255-256. 

2  K.  Frumerie,  Skand.   Arch.  f.  Physiol,  Vol.  XXX.,  p.  409,  1913. 


90 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


XXXVI. — (3.)  N euro-muscular  Energy. — It  will  be  under- 
stood that  the  feeling  of  impotence  which  is  the  sign  of  fatigue 
is  localised  in  the  neuro-muscular  system.  A  man  who  sets  off 
running  at  a  rapid  pace  is  inevitably,  sooner  or  later,  forced 
by  this  sensation  to  relax  his  effort  and  to  slacken  speed. 


FIG.  39. — Tonograms  taken  during  Static  Effort. 

There  are  various  means  of  verifying  this  fact.  To  begin 
with,  we  may  employ  the  ergometric  cycle,  actuated  by  the 
pedals  or  by  a  crank.  We  may  employ  a  braked  wheel,  the 
brake  being  loaded  with  a  weight  of  6  kilogrammes,  turned 
at  a  rate  of  200  revolutions  per  minute.  The  wheel  inscribes 
a  record  of  its  own  revolutions,  by  means  of  an  electric  contact, 
and  we  presently  note  that  the  tracing  exhibits  longer  and 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE 


91 


92 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


less  regular  intervals.  With  the  cheirograph,1  which  we  shall 
describe  later,  the  decrease  of  muscular  activity  may  be  fol- 
lowed, either  in  the  fingers  separately,  or  in  the  whole  hand, 
or  in  the  wrist  (Fig.  40).  The  rhythm  is  measured  by  a 
metronome,  and  the  weight  to  be  moved  by  the  muscular  con- 
tractions does  not  vary  (Fig.  41). 

The  data  relating  to  the  form  and  frequency  of  the  mus- 
cular contractions  being  thus  determined,  it  is  obviously 
only  the  amplitude  of  the  contractions,  the  height  through 


FIG.  41. 


which  the  weight  is  lifted,  which  is  diminished  by  fatigue. 
The  work  performed,  then,  is  less  and  less.  The  appearance 
of  a  cheirogram  is  characteristic  ;  the  crests  of  the  tracing  are 
lower  and  lower  as  fatigue  advances,  or  as  it  is  increasingly 
affected  by  circumstances  :  by  bad  food,  lack  of  sleep,  moral 
depression,  high  temperature,  alcoholism,  or  some  unapparent 
condition  of  impotence. 

To  a  practised  eye,  I  might  remark,  the  comparison  of  the 
cheirograms  taken  before   and   after  an  experiment  should 

1  J.  Amar,  Lz  Moteur  Humain,  p.  391 ;    Journ.  de  Physiol.,  p,  849,  1915. 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE  93 

permit  of  an  estimation  of  the  degree  of  fatigue.  If  we  display 
such  a  tracing  by  rapidly  rotating  the  recording  cylinder, 
we  shall  note  the  flagging  of  the  muscular  effort  in  all  the 
phases  of  the  curve.  The  will  does  not  act  upon  the  muscles 
by  a  single  impulse  ;  the  nervous  centres  have  to  multiply 
their  impulses,  and  then  the  weakness  of  the  contraction  betrays 
the  simultaneous  fatigue  of  the  nervous  system  ;  simultaneous 
because  the  muscular  fibre  itself,  above  all,  becomes  fatigued, 
becomes  less  irritable  and  less  elastic  ;  its  very  elementary 
structure  becomes  impaired.  After  very  violent  move- 
ments, after  very  great  efforts,  the  muscles  suffer  from  con- 
tracture  ;  they  become  rigid,  only  slowly  and  with  difficulty 
recovering  all  their  original  flexibility.  We  have  instances 
of  such  contracture  in  the  rheumatic  stiff  neck,  which  affects 
the  sternocleidomastoideus ;  or  in  the  spasm  known  as 
writer's  cramp,  to  which  typists  and  seamstresses  are 
subject  as  well  as  authors. 

The  fatigue  of  the  nervous  system  is  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  motor  impulses  which  it  is  obliged  to  furnish  to  the 
muscular  system  in  order  to  cause  the  latter  to  function  ;  this 
expenditure  is  heavy  in  work  which  demands  movements 
repeated  with  great  frequency.  Short  steps,  very  often 
repeated,  are  more  tiring  than  good  long  strides  ;  and  here 
we  see  why  in  certain  kinds  of  work  which  do  not  require 
strength  there  is  considerable  nervous  exhaustion,  while  fatigue 
soon  makes  its  appearance. 

A  further  consequence  of  this  phenomenon  is  that  disorders 
of  the  general  sensibility  are  produced  ;  the  nerves  react  less 
swiftly  ;  the  personal  equation  increases  ;  the  sight  becomes 
less  acute  ;  this  is  the  ocular  asthenopia  of  compositors,  shoe- 
makers, etc.,  in  which  one  can  no  longer  distinguish  colours 
without  increasing  the  intensity  of  the  light ;  at  the  same 
time  the  cerebral  activity  is  diminished,  ideas  or  images  being 
less  quickly  distinguished  by  the  mind. 

The  tactile  sensibility,  the  source  of  our  most  frequent  sensa- 
tions, and  our  principal  means  of  education,  is  also  in  turn 
diminished.  It  may  be  measured  by  touching  the  surface  of 
the  skin  with  two  ivory  points  ;  the  normal  separation  of  the 


34  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

points  of  this  special  compasses  or  aesthesiomeler  has  to  be 
increased,  so  as  to  include  a  larger  sensitive  area.  These  various 
manifestations  of  nervous  fatigue  often  result  from  a  deficit 
of  oxygen  in  the  blood,  or  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid  gas  due 
to  working  too  rapidly.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
excitability  of  the  nervous  centres  diminishes,  at  all  events  for  a 
certain  time,1  involving  a  diminution  of  the  peripheral  sensi- 
bility. Voluntary  actions  and  reflex  actions  also  are  per- 
formed in  a  hesitating  manner ;  sometimes  they  become 
disordered.  For  example,  a  young  girl  who  uses  a  skipping- 
rope  too  long  at  a  stretch  eventually  makes  mistakes,  and  her 
movements  become  confused. 

All  these  factors,  at  which  I  can  give  only  a  rapid  glance, 
are  measurable  values  ;  and  we  may  draw  up  tables  of  figures 
representing  the  extent  of  these  reactions  before  and  after 
fatigue,  which  will  furnish  us  with  useful  information. 

In  many  cases  I  have  been  able  to  replace  the  tracings  of 
the  cheirograph  by  a  more  expeditious  method  of  determining 
the  greater  or  less  resistance  of  the  nervous  centres  ;  the  subject 
at  a  given  moment  seizes  two  weights  of  5  kilogrammes  (about 
11  Ibs.)  which  are  placed  within  his  reach,  one  on  either  hand, 
his  arms  being  outstretched  laterally  and  in  a  horizontal  line. 
He  must  not  allow  his  arms  to  fall,  save  as  a  result  of  fatigue  ; 
when  this  occurs  the  arms  begin  to  droop  and  to  tremble. 
We  note  the  duration  of  this  static  effort,  and  it  is  repeated  at 
intervals  of  a  minute,  as  long  as  it  is  judged  necessary  to  con- 
tinue the  experiment. 

The  product  of  the  weight  and  the  time,  p  x  /,  in  kilogramme- 
seconds  or  pound-seconds,  varies  in  different  individuals  ;  at 
the  beginning  of  the  experiment  the  time  value  may  vary  from 
18  to  20  seconds.  But  it  is  to  be  noted  that  in  an  hour's  tests 
the  endurance,  expressed  by  the  total  of  the  products  p  x  t, 
is  found  to  be  characteristic  of  a  man,  and  often  of  a  group  of 
men  addicted  to  the  same  form  of  muscular  exertion.  In 
twenty  instances,  for  example,  it  had  an  almost  constant 

'Altobelli,  Arch,  ital  Biol,  Vol.  XL.,  p.  99,  1903;  Piotrovsky,  Du  Bois- 
Eeym.  Arch.  /.  Phys.,  p.  205,  1893;— Baglioni,  Arch.  ital.  Biol,  Vol.  XLIL, 
p.  83,  1904. 


WORK   AND    FATIGUE  95 

value.  The  endurance  limit  reveals  itself  thus  :  to  begin 
with  there  is  a  determined  effort,  then  a  sudden  fall,  and  an 
absolute  refusal  of  the  muscles  to  bear  the  weight  any  longer. 
After  an  hour's  rest,  the  curve  again  declines  very  rapidly,  and 
one  is  justified  in  saying  that  nervous  motor  excitation  tends 
to  become  exhausted,  just  as  does  the  muscular  energy.  The 
shape  of  the  curves  of  endurance  is  that  of  a  hyperbola  (Fig.  42). 
For  example,  we  may  obtain  such  results  as  these  :  44",  30", 
29",  19",  16",  15",  14",  13",  13",  11",  10",  11",  10",  11",  11",  11", 
8",  10",  11",  11",  =  308",  or  a  total  of  308  x  10kg.,  or,  3,080  kilo- 


General    Form   of    Curves    of  Endurance 


Time 
FIG.  42. 

gramme-seconds.  On  an  average  a  healthy  adult,  not  suffering 
from  fatigue,  attains  a  total  of  3,000  kilogramme-seconds. 
All  striking  irregularities,  and  all  values  lower  than  2,000 
kilogramme-seconds,  betray  great  fatigue  of  the  nerve-centres. 

XXXVIL— (4.)  Biochemical  Indications  of  Fatigue.— The 
nature  of  fatigue,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is  an  intoxication, 
which,  occurring  at  the  points  where  activity  is  at  its  maxi- 
mum intensity,  gradually  extends  to  the  entire  organism. 

The  poisons  of  fatigue  result  from  the  transformation  of  the 
-cellular  albuminoids,  which  is  always  extremely  bad  for  the 
health,  for  not  only  is  it  extravagant,  necessitating  far  more 
oxygen  than  if  fats  or  sugars  were  concerned,  but  it  liberates 
toxic  bodies  or  ponogenes.  These  are  formed  more  particularly 
when  the  muscles  are  putting  forth  excessive  efforts.  These 


96  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

products  are  based  upon  nuclein,  whose  origin  is  the  nucleus 
of  the  cell ;  they  are  acid,  and  phosphorised  or  nitrogenous. 
These  nuclein  bases  are  also  found  in  the  urine,  together 
with  phosphates  and  uric  acid.  This  last,  eliminated  by  the 
organism  at  the  rate  of  8  milligrammes  per  kilogramme  during 
the  24  hours,  this  rate  being  constant,1  is  more  abundant 
after  fatigue.2  And  all  these  products,  conveyed  by  the 
blood,  poison  the  organism.  We  have  seen  tha^  their  injection 
into  the  veins  of  an  animal  causes  a  depression  of  the  vital 
forces,  and  the  disorders  peculiar  to  fatigue ;  they  diminish  the 
muscular  excitability,  involving  an  increasing  expenditure  of 
nervous  energy,  and  an  actual  wasting  of  the  vital  resources  ; 
they  impair  even  the  living  tissues,  those  of  the  muscles  and 
the  nerves  ;  they  impede  the  regularity  of  the  phenomena  of 
respiration  and  circulation. 

While  normal  activity  reduces  the  proportion  of  the  urinary 
toxins,3  intense  labour  and  extreme  fatigue  visibly  increase 
it ;  and  Bouchard  has  noted  that  they  produce  a  certain 
narcotic  effect,  which  may  vary  from  mere  somnolence  to  death. 

Unfortunately  the  measures  taken,  when  examining  urine, 
to  detect  the  extreme  limit  of  physiological  fatigue,  are  still 
deficient.  Neither  from  the  analysis  of  the  blood  nor  from  the 
toxicity  of  the  perspiration  can  we  obtain  more  reliable  infor- 
mation. We  must  combine  a  large  number  of  data — briefly 
indicated  here — in  order  to  appreciate  the  intensity  of  fatigue. 

The  truly  physiological  characteristic  of  the  latter  is  proved 
by  the  disappearance  of  all  its  effects  after  rest  and  sleep,  both 
necessary  things,  and  both  demanded  by  the  auto-intoxication 
itself.  The  toxin  which  causes  sleep,  the  hypnotoxin,  is  formed 
during  the  waking  state  ;  it  is  found  in  the  blood,  and  more 
particularly  in  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid  ;  it  is  said  to  produce 
temporary  degenerative  changes  in  the  frontal  lobe  of  the 
brain.4  Fatigue  and  lack  of  sleep  give  rise  to  a  torpid  con- 

1  Faustka,  Pfl    Arch.,  Vol.  CLV.,  p.  523,  1914. 

*  Herther  and  Smith,  Maltfs  Jahrb.,  Vol.  XXII.,  p.  200,  1892  ;— Dunlop.etc., 
Journ.  of  Physiol.,  Vol.  XXII.,  p.  68,  1898. 

3  Ch.  Bouchard,  L:$ons  sur  les  auto-intox.  dans  les  maladies,  Paris,  1887; — 
Colasanti,  Bicerche  Istit.  Farmacol.  Sper.,  Vol.  II. -IV.,  1893-1899. 

*H.  Pieron,  Le  Probleme  physiologique  du  somme.il,  Masson,  1913. 


WORK    AND    FATIGUE  97 

dition  of  the  organs  of  movement,  and  relax  the  tonicity  of 
the  muscular  system,  exerting  a  depressing  effect  on  the 
innervation  ;  they  render  rest  and  sleep  inevitable,  for  at  a 
certain  moment  they  become  inhibitory,  constituting  a 
mechanism  of  defence  against  exaggerated  activity.  The 
oxygen  of  the  blood  will  restore  the  vitality  of  the  organism. 

If,  through  a  false  conception  of  the  laws  of  work,  one 
disregards  these  warnings  of  fatigue,  the  normal  limits  are 
quickly  passed  ;  the  intoxication  becomes  aggravated,  giving 
rise  to  a  febrile  stiffness,  headache,  and  other  painful  symp- 
toms. The  resistance  of  the  nerve-centres  becomes  greatly 
diminished,  and,  in  short,  the  resistance  of  the  organism 
collapses  ;  and  it  is  this  lessening  of  resistance  which  awakens 
latent  imperfections  and  maladies,  which  have  very  often 
been  unsuspected  ;  it  is  this  which  breaks  down  the  reaction 
that  infectious  germs  find  it  so  difficult  to  contend  against. 
Typhoid  fever  or  tuberculosis  declares  itself.  We  know  what 
is  the  dismal  fate  of  armies  exhausted  by  warfare. 

The  object  of  the  physiological  organisation  of  human 
activity  is  to  render  impossible  the  circumstances  which  give 
rise  to  overwork,  and  end  by  ruining  the  health.  Its  aim  is  the 
conservation  of  the  human  race  by  means  of  social  hygiene. 


CHAPTER    V 
THE  FACTORS  OF  LABOUR 

XXXVIII. — In  order  to  organise  human  labour,  we  must 
understand  the  laws  of  muscular  and  nervous  activity,  and 
the  numerous  factors  on  which  they  are  dependent. 

Even  among  the  ancients  precepts  were  current  to  the 
effect  that  one  should  exercise  the  body  before  and  not  after 
meals,  and  that  such  exercise  should  be  continued  "  until  a 
slight  lassitude  is  felt,  until  a  little  perspiration  appears,  or 
at  least  until  a  warm  vapour  is  exhaled  by  the  exertions  of  the 
body."  l  These  rudimentary  ideas  of  physiology  and  hygiene 
were,  however,  entirely  disregarded  when  the  army  was  in 
question.  The  military  ideal,  especially  among  the  Romans, 
was  one  of  the  most  rigorous  training,  until  the  soldier  was 
able  to  cover  distances  of  twenty-five  miles  a  day  with  a 
load  averaging  about  77  Ibs.  It  must  be  admitted  that  such 
a  life  as  this  gave  the  soldier  a  tough  constitution,  and  that 
the  organism  became  accustomed  to  extreme  fatigue. 

The  principles  of  physical  training  were  in  the  course  of 
time  forgotten,  and  under  Louis  XIV.  victories  were  dearly 
bought.  In  1734  Montesquieu  remarked  with  justice  :  "  We 
note  to-day  that  our  armies  are  largely  perishing  owing  to  the 
immoderate  exertions  of  the  soldiers  ;  yet  it  was  by  means 
of  immense  exertions  that  the  Romans  saved  themselves. 
The  reason  of  this  is,  I  believe,  that  their  hardships  were 
continuous,  whereas  our  soldiers,  on  the  other  hand,  pass 
incessantly  from  extreme  exertion  to  extreme  idleness,  which 

1  Galen,  De  Sanitate  tuenda,  Vol.  II. 


THE    FACTORS    OF    LABOUR  99 

of  all  things  in  the  world  is  most  likely  to  kill  them.  We  no 
longer  have  a  just  idea  of  bodily  exercises."  l 

This  just  idea  could  have  been  obtained  only  by  consulting 
Nature,  and  Nature,  according  to  Newton,  creates  nothing  but 
geometry,  and  derives  her  inspiration  from  the  principles 
of  this  geometry. 

Galileo  2  demonstrated  the  fact  that  of  all  our  muscles  that 
which  works  without  resting,  without  irregularity,  and 
which  reveals  itself  as  truly  indefatigable,  is  assuredly  the 
heart.  It  possesses  a  given  mass,  and  it  contracts  at  the 
rate  of  about  seventy- two  times  per  minute  ;  and  as  "it 
moves  only  its  own  mass,"  this  may  be  the  explanation  of  its 
indefatigability.3  The  other  muscles,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  to  move  the  skeleton,  and  sometimes  the  entire  weight 
of  the  body,  as  in  the  case  of  the  leg  muscles. 

These  speculative  views  of  the  great  Italian  scientist  are 
in  agreement  with  our  modern  ideas  as  to  muscular  effort. 
There  is,  in  truth,  for  every  locomotive  apparatus,  a  rhythm 
of  contraction  and  a  resistance  to  be  overcome  which  is  per- 
fectly adapted  to  its  normal  action,  although  this  has  the 
appearance  of  being  undefined.  Further,  there  are  certain 
values  which  correspond  to  the  most  economical  rhythm  and 
effort*  those  which  entail  the  least  expenditure  of  energy. 

In  this  connection  we  can  do  no  more  than  briefly  formulate 
the  laws  determined  by  the  physiologists,  and  in  particular  by 
Chaveau. 

XXXIX.  The  Laws  of  Chaveau.— 1.  The  expenditure  of 
energy  is  in  proportion  to  the  muscular  effort  of  contraction, 
to  its  duration,  and  to  the  degree  of  contraction. — The  meaning 
of  this  first  law  is  obvious  :  the  energy  expended,  or  the 

1  Montesquieu,  Considerations  sur  les  causes  de  la  grandeur  des  Romains  et 
de  leur  decadence,  p.  10  (ed.  Barckhausen,  Paris,  1900). 

'•  Galileo  (1564-1642),  Opere,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  558  (Milan  ed.,  1811). 

3  But  see  note  on  p.  28.  The  absence  of  rest  in  the  case  of  the  heart  is  apparent 
only,  since  a  part  of  every  second  is  devoted  to  repose.      Moreover,  besides 
"  its  own  mass  "  the  heart  moves  the  mass  of  the  blood. — ED. 

4  If  all  our  muscles  could  operate  under  the  same  conditions  as  the  heart  they 
would  produce   in    24    hours   nearly    3    million  kilogram-metres  of  work,  or 
enough  to  enable  one  to  make  the  ascent  of  Mont  Blanc  four  times  over. 


100 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


fatigue  produced,  increases  if  the  efforts  are  more  intense  and 
more  protracted  ;  but  it  must  be  added  that  this  fatigue,  all 
other  conditions  being  equal,  is  doubled  if  the  shortening  of 
the  muscles  is  twice  as  great.  The  observation  of  a  good 
workman  will  confirm  this  portion  of  the  law  ;  in  pushing  a 
wheelbarrow  he  will  allow  his  arms  to  hang  straight  in  place  of 


FIG.  43. — Position  of  Arms  on  lifting  Wheelbarrow. 


flexing   them,   thereby   exerting  the   same   sustaining   effort 
with  the  minimum  of  fatigue  (Fig.  43). 

If  it  is  on  occasion  necessary  to  exert  great  muscular  force, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  latter  increases  less  and  less 
rapidly  as  the  muscle  approaches  the  limits  of  its  contraction. 
The  effort  of  contraction  should  not  be  carried  to  its  limit, 


THE  FACTORS  OF  LABOUR  101 

or  there  will  be  waste  of  energy.  Violent  exertions  constitute 
abnormal  conditions  of  muscular  activity,  whose  consequences 
are  irreparable. 

2.  The  expenditure  of  energy  required  to  perform  a  given 
amount  of  work  diminishes  in  proportion  as  the  rapidity  of  the 
muscular  contractions  increases. — But  this  is  true  only  within 
certain  limits  of  speed,  beyond  which  nervous  exhaustion  will 
ensue,    together    with    profound    physiological    disturbances. 
As  I  have  already  remarked,  a  rapid  gait,  or  a  rapid  rate  of 
work,   is  permissible   only  when   it   does   not   overload   the 
organs  of  circulation  and  respiration.     Under  such  conditions 
speed  is  really  economical.     Modern  industry,  which  demands 
the  qualities  of  skill  and  speed  far  more  than  strength,  should 
confine  itself  to  these  economical  speeds,  of  which  the  Taylor 
system  suspected  the  existence,  although  it  could  not  state 
what  they  were. 

3.  There  is  a  most  favourable  effort  and  a  most  favourable 
speed  for  the  performance  of  the  maximum  of  work  with  the  mini- 
mum of  fatigue.      This  is  a  consequence  of  the  preceding  law, 
and  the  determination  of  this  effort  and  this  speed  constitutes 
the  real  object  of  the  scientific  organisation  of  human  energy. 
Whether  the  most  delicate  kind  of  work  or  the  heaviest  labour 
is  in  question,  the  force  exerted,  and  the  pace  of  the  work, 
should  always  be  duly  proportioned,  the  sole  guide  being  the 
data  obtained  by  experiment. 

4.  Law   of   Rest   (Jules   Amar). — A    muscle   returns   more 
speedily  to  its  condition  of  repose  in  proportion  as  its  work  has 
been  more  rapidly  performed. — This  law,  formulated  in  1910, 
is  entirely  comparable  to  the  law  of  the  cooling  of  heated 
bodies.     The  temperature  of  a  body  which  has  been  heated 
falls  at  a  rate  proportional  to  the  temperature  to  which  it  has 
been  raised  (Newton).     Similarly,  the  consumption  of  oxygen, 
which  expresses  the  expenditure   of  energy,   decreases  pro- 
gressively from  the  termination  of  work  until  the  condition 
of  repose  is  regained,  and  this  decrease  proceeds  rapidly,  the 
return  to  the  initial  condition  occurring  quickly  when  the  work 
lias  been  strenuous — of  course  within  certain  limits.    The  law  of 
this  decrease  enables  us  to  determine  the  interval  of  rest  which 


102 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


is  necessary  on  each  occasion  to  restore  the  physiological 
conditions  which  obtained  at  the  outset,  and  to  divide  the 
work  into  reasonable  shifts.  In  this  way  a  large  daily  output 
will  be  obtained  without  impairing  the  resistance  of  the 
organism.  In  the  same  way  the  degree  of  ventilation  pro- 
gressively decreases  ;  it  should  resume  the  value  normal  to 
periods  of  repose  four  minutes  after  the  work,  whatever  it 
may  be,  is  ended.  The  tonographic  curves  also  return  to  their 
initial  amplitude  (Fig.  44). 


FIG.  44. 


The  whole  science  of  human  labour  is  condensed  in  these 
four  laws,  and  the  whole  art  of  working,  together  with  the  whole 
of  physical  education,  resides  in  their  application.  Duly  to 
proportion  effort  and  pace,  to  enforce  intervals  of  repose — 
this  is  the  secret  of  a  normal  activity,  exempt  from  overwork, 
and,  what  is  even  better,  favourable  to  the  complete  develop- 
ment of  the  functions  of  life.  Whether  in  physical  or  intel- 
lectual exertion,  everything  is  a  question  of  measure,  of 
discipline  ;  that  is  to  say,  of  order  and  harmony. 


THE  FACTORS  OF  LABOUR  103 

But  this  order  and  this  harmony  must  yield  both  an  outward 
and  an  inward  irradiation,  must  control  the  living  machine 
internally  as  well  as  in  its  relations  with  the  outer  world,  for 
life  is  subject  to  the  incessant  influence  of  numerous  physio- 
logical and  cosmical  agencies.  Human  activity  is  therefore 
dependent  upon  these,  and  we  shall  see  by  what  powerful  bonds 
they  hold  it  and  control  it. 

XL. — A.  INTERNAL  FACTORS  OF  WORK:  OUR  FOOD. — No 
motor  can  fulfil  its  function  and  perform  work  unless  it  is  suitably 
fed.  In  the  living  motor  the  fuel  is  known  as  food  or  aliment, 
and  the  phenomenon  of  combustion  bears  the  name  of  nutri- 
tion ;  it  is,  as  we  have  seen,  an  oxidation  affecting  the  reserves 
of  the  body-cells.  "  It  is  not  the  food  eaten  at  the  time  that 
furnishes  the  energy  employed  in  the  physiological  tasks  of  the 
organism,"  says  Chaveau,  "  but  the  potential  created  with 
the  food  which  one  has  eaten  previously."  x 

These  physiological  processes  require  the  presence  of  oxygen 
and  water  and  certain  saline  substances — salts  of  lime  (carbon- 
ates and  phosphates)  and  of  soda  (chloride  of  sodium),  which 
consolidate  the  bones  and  participate  in  the  processes  of 
digestion  or  humoral  equilibrium.  Our  alimentary  rations 
almost  always  contain  the  necessary  salts,  and  the  2  to  3  litres 
of  water  which  an  adult  requires.  And  all  our  foodstuffs 
contain,  in  varying  proportions,  three  kinds  of  alimentary 
material :  fats  (bacon,  butter,  etc.),  albuminoids  (white  of  egg, 
lean  meat),  and  carbohydrates  (sugars  and  starches).  Expe- 
rience has  shown  that  alimentation  should  furnish  our  bodies 
with  one  gramme  of  albuminoids  per  kilogramme  of  body  weight 
in  order  to  make  up  for  organic  wear  and  tear.  Above  all, 
it  has  taught  us — and  the  theory  of  energetics  confirms 
this — that  the  work  of  the  muscles,  and  probably  that  of  the 
nervous  system,  consumes  carbohydrates  almost  exclusively. 
The  true  source  of  available  energy  resides  in  these  saccharine 
aliments,  which  are  derived  from  the  glycogen  accumulated 
in  the  liver.  Proceeding  from  the  liver  to  the  muscles,  they 

1  It  is  impossible  to  enter  into  the  problem  of  alimentation  here.  I  must 
refer  the  reader  to  Le  Moteur  Humain,  pp.  176-217. 


104          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

are  there  transformed  into  useful  or  mechanical  energy,  almost 
without  waste  ;  100  calories  of  the  said  aliments  really  yielding 
100  calories  of  available  work,  either  in  the  muscle-cells  or  the 
nerve-cells.  The  fats  and  albuminoids,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  a  wasteful  fuel,  less  digestible  than  the  carbohydrates 
and  not  so  pure ;  this  is  especially  true  of  the  albuminoids, 
for  they  give  rise  to  the  toxic  products  which  hasten  the 
advent  of  fatigue.  In  the  process  of  transformation  they 
lose,  respectively,  15  per  cent,  and  45  per  cent,  of  their  avail- 
able energy,  a  loss  which  takes  the  form  of  a  mere  production 
of  heat,  which  is  a  degraded  form  of  energy. 

Thus,  the  more  active  the  life  we  lead,  the  greater  use 
we  shall  make  of  the  foods  which  contain  carbohydrates  ;  and 
there  is,  in  principle,  a  minimum  of  albuminoids — a  compara- 
tively small  minimum — which  should  be  absorbed  by  the 
body,  and  a  larger  minimum  of  carbohydrates.  With  the  latter 
excess  is  an  advantage  ;  with  the  former,  an  inconvenience, 
and  often  a  danger. 

Let  us  add  that  food  best  stimulates  the  digestive  secretions 
when  it  is  slightly  seasoned ;  that  it  is  more  digestible  in  some 
states  than  in  others  ;  concerning  which  we  shall  give  a  few 
hints  later  on.  The  manner  in  which  a  dish  is  prepared, 
according  to  Pavloff,  acts  in  a  psychical  or  mental  fashion  on 
the  powers  of  digestion  (see  §  10) ;  so  that  the  traditions  of 
the  culinary  art  are  deserving  of  respect.  It  is  enough  to 
improve  the  quality  of  the  food  provided  and  to  provide  it 
in  sufficient  quantities. 

XLI.  Hunger,  Inanition. — Bad  or  insufficient  alimentation 
depresses  the  vital  forces  and  gives  rise  to  anaemia.  In 
inanition  nervous  disorders  may  make  their  appearance, 
although  the  brain  is  of  all  the  organs  that  which  offers  the 
greatest  resistance  to  material  exhaustion.  But  the  muscles 
suffer  great  losses  ;  hence  it  is  the  labourer  who  suffers  most 
from  hunger.  It  is  the  same  with  the  child,  by  reason  of  the 
necessities  of  growth ;  the  child  who  has  been  ill-nourished 
suffers  damage  which  the  best  of  diets  will  never  make  up  for. 
I  have  found  that  it  is  of  advantage,  when  endeavouring  to 


THE  FACTORS  OF  LABOUR  105 

repair  such  damage,  not  to  exceed  a  proportion  of  2  grammes 
of  albuminoids  to  the  kilogramme,  and  to  depend  upon  carbo- 
hydrates ;  in  other  words,  the  process  of  repair  must  be  pro- 
gressive and  gradual.  I  would  say  as  much  to  those  young 
men  who  are  ardently  devoted  to  athletic  sports,  and  who 
undergo  exertions  whose  effects  can  be  repaired,  and  which 
can  be  rendered  useful,  only  by  a  correct  alimentation. 

Hunger  is  a  defensive  sensation,  which  begins  by  a  dragging 
pain  in  the  stomach,  accompanied  by  powerful  contractions. 
By  means  of  thin  bladders  of  rubber  introduced  into  this 
organ  it  is  possible  to  register  these  contractions,  and  to 
measure  their  intensity,  their  rhythm,  and  their  synchronism 
with  those  of  the  lower  oesophagus.1  The  pangs  of  hunger 
are  next  reflected  by  the  pharynx  and  the  temples,  producing 
headaches.  They  are  keener  during  fatiguing  exertion,  espe- 
cially in  winter. 

Lastly,  we  know  that  some  persons  suffer  from  bulimia, 
or  a  morbidly  large  appetite,  and  are  obliged  to  eat  incessantly 
in  order  to  satisfy  their  devouring  hunger.  But,  apart  from 
this  abnormal  condition,  one  should  avoid  excessive  eating, 
and  beware  of  the  refinements  of  cookery.  Unfortunately  we 
eat  too  much,  and  we  vary  our  food  too  greatly.  The  result 
is  an  excess  of  digestive  labour,  which  involves  a  supple- 
mentary expenditure  of  energy ;  2  the  stomach  becomes 
dilated,  the  respiration  is  embarrassed,  while  vertigo,  insomnia, 
and  cardiac  acceleration  often  make  their  appearance  ;  one 
becomes  unfit  for  hard  physical  work,  and  even  the  mind  is 
obscured.  The  toxic  effect  of  these  copious  rep'asts  is  abso- 
lutely incontestable. 

And,  on  the  other  hand,  an  excess  of  alimentary  excitation 
fatigues  the  nerves  of  the  digestive  system.  "  The  majority 
of  choice  dishes  .  .  .  irritate  the  organs  of  digestion  and 
secretion  in  an  injurious  manner."  3  The  case  is  complicated 
by  the  appearance  of  more  serious  disorders,  such  as  rheu- 
matism, gout,  albuminuria,  or  obesity,  according  as  the  diet 

1  Carlson  and  Lukhardt,  Amer.  Journ.  of  Physiol,  Vol.  XXXIIL,  p.  126, 1914. 

2  Laulanie,   Comptes  Rendus  Biologie,  p.  548,  1904. 

3  E.  Metschnikoff ,  Etudes  sur  la  nature  humaine,  p.  379,  Paris,  1908. 


106          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

is  chiefly  fatty  or  albuminous.  An  abundant  diet  is  the  glaring 
defect  of  middle-class  society. 

XLII.  Alimentary  Rations. — It  must  always  be  remem- 
bered that  the  alimentary  ration  which  will  suffice  to  make  up 
for  our  material  expenditure,  whether  resting  or  working, 
and  to  cover  the  expenses  of  bodily  maintenance,  must  be 
regulated  by  the  mass  of  the  body  and  the  amount  of  mus- 
cular work  performed.  In  order  that  it  may  be  a  true  ration 
of  maintenance  it  must  suffice  to  make  up  for  the  wear  and  tear 
of  the  organism,  and  to  maintain  the  weight  of  the  subject.  A 
constant  weight  is,  in  the  adult,  evidence  of  the  integrity  of 
the  functions  and  the  suitable  nature  of  the  ration.  Abstin- 
ence from  albuminoid  foodstuffs  results  in  organic  wasting ; 
the  weight  decreases  by  about  1  per  cent,  daily.1  The  diet, 
therefore,  must  supply,  in  addition  to  the  necessary  calories 
of  heat,  an  alimentation  perfectly  adapted  to  the  most  definite 
physiological  needs.  It  should  contain  the  minimum  of  albu- 
minoids or  proteids,  which,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is  1  gramme 
per  kilogramme  of  body-weight,  and  a  minimum  of  carbo- 
hydrates, the  proportion  of  which  will  increase  with  the  severity 
of  the  work  performed.  Fats,  which  will  not  be  largely 
represented  in  these  rations,  will,  however,  be  present  in  larger 
proportions  when  the  weather  is  cold. 

And  these  foodstuffs  should  always  be  prepared  in  such  a 
way  as  to  stimulate  the  appetite,  that  complicated  reflex 
by  which  the  body  and  the  mind  interpret  their  inner  life,  a 
reflex  which  it  is  profitable  to  consult.  Food  should  always 
be  well  masticated  and  slowly  ingested  into  the  alimentary 
canal.  It  would  seem  that  there  were  formerly,  in  Rome, 
persons  whose  duty  it  was  to  teach  the  art  of  mastication. 
And  more  recently  the  Fletcherites  have  made  an  important 
hygienic  duty  of  the  act  of  mastication.  Fletcherism  deserves 
more  than  a  mere  mention.  In  1890  a  wealthy  American, 
Horace  Fletcher,  hardly  forty  years  of  age,  resolved  to  cure 
himself  of  an  evil  from  which  he  suffered  greatly  :  obesity. 

*S.  Hatal,  Amer.  Journ.  of  Physiol,  Vol.  XII.,  p   116,  1904 


THE    FACTORS    OF   LABOUR  107 

"  He  had  become  incapable  of  conducting  his  business,  of 
frequenting  the  clubs,  of  fighting  the  battle  of  social  life 
...  he  found  himself  so  physically  disordered  that  the 
insurance  companies  refused  to  accept  him.  .  .  .  Then  he 
bethought  himself  that  the  derangement  of  his  mechanism 
was  due  especially  to  over-eating,  and  he  himself  sought  the 
method  of  treatment :  this  was  an  economical  alimentation" 
He  decided  upon  a  diet  containing  a  large  proportion  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  a  quantity  of  proteids  corresponding  to  0-60 
grammes  per  kilogramme  of  body-weight.  This  diet  consisted 
only  of  vegetables,  cereals,  sugar,  and  milk,  and  represented 
1,600  to  1,610  calories  for  a  man  of  72  kilogrammes  (about 
11  stone  5  Ibs.) ;  an  insufficient  figure,  but  the  diet  was  a 
suitable  one  for  a  person  who  had  to  consume  the  fatty  surplus 
of  his  own  obesity.  We  may  remark  that  a  fasting  man, 
during  complete  repose,  expends  a  minimum  of  1  calorie  per 
kilogramme-hour,  according  to  a  mass  of  concordant  observa- 
tions.1 In  Fletcher's  case  this  would  give  a  value  of 
Ic  x  72  X  24  =  1,734  calories. 

By  this  means  Fletcher  restored  himself  to  a  remarkable 
state  of  physical  and  moral  health.  During  the  whole  of  the 
year  1903  he  consented  even  to  become  the  subject  of  experi- 
ments conducted  by  the  physiologist  Chittenden,  which  were 
the  basis  of  a  very  valuable  survey  of  the  question  of  hygienic 
and  economical  alimentation,  and  the  origin  of  Fletcherism, 
for  this  singular  person  found  many  zealous  followers.  These 
latter  discipline  their  sense  of  taste,  gradually  triumphing 
over  the  tyranny  of  the  palate,  by  accustoming  themselves 
to  relish  patiently  masticated  foodstuffs,  which,  turned  over 
and  over  upon  the  tongue,  stimulate  the  secretion  of  the 
digestive  juices,  and  eventually  become  agreeable.  Elaborate 
cookery  is,  justifiably,  rigorously  opposed.  Fletcherism 
is  merely  a  matter  of  training.  Some  will  regard  a  rhyth- 
mical, calculated*  regulated  gymnastic  of  this  kind  as  excessive 
in  connection  with  the  elementary  act  of  mastication.  There 
is  a  certain  amount  of  tiuth  in  this,  but  I  would  gladly  see  it 

1  R.  Tiegerstedt,   Arch.  di.  fisiol,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  426,  1909. 


108          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

cure  us  of  the  opposite  excess,  of  the  tachyphagia,  of  which 
we  are,  at  table;  the  often  unconscious  victims. 

We  will  conclude  by  indicating  the  method  of  evaluating 
and  apportioning  our  aliments,  that  is,  of  determining  the 
rations  proper  to  each  according  to  his  age  and  the  nature  of 
his  work.  In  this  volume,  which  is  at  once  elementary  and 
practical,  I  shall  always  be  careful  to  refrain  from  giving  advice 
impossible  to  follow.  The  best  advice  is  that  which  respects 
the  scientific  truth  and  wins  men  to  follow  it.  The  chains  of 
the  laboratory  must  not  too  closely  shackle  the  limbs  of  educa- 
tion, for  education  is  a  thing  which  lives  and  moves. 

TABLE  OF  ALIMENTARY  RATIONS. 

(Number  of  calories  per  kilogramme  of  body  weight  per  24  hours.1) 

1.  LIGHT  OCCUPATIONS  AND  INTELLECTUAL  WORK  (authors,  scientists,  business 
men,  officials,  schoolmasters,  clergymen,  jewellers,  tailors,  dressmakers,  etc.): 

30  calories  (macaroni,  spaghetti,  vermicelli,  etc.,  fresh  vegetables,  milk,  the 
more  delicate  kinds  of  fish,  pastry,.etc.,  to  be  given  preference),  of  which  proteid 
should  form  one-tenth. 

2.  WORK  OF  MEDIUM  HEAVINESS  (skilled  craftsmen,  shopkeepers,  hairdressers, 
dyers,  chimney-sweeps,  shop-assistants,  domestic  servants,  etc.)  : 

36  calories  (same  remarks  as  above;  a  moderate  consumption  of  bread,  and 
a  very  moderate  consumption  of  meat — 75  grammes  [2-6  oz.] — daily;  dried 
vegetables). 

3.  FATIGUING    WORK    (soldiers,    sailors,    navvies,    dock    labourers,    artisans, 
mechanics,  labourers,  agricultural  and  other,  etc.) : 

50  to  70  calories,  according  to  the  amount  of  work  performed  (the  above 
remarks  apply;  while  bread,  potatoes,  and  fruits,  such  as  prunes,  chestnuts, 
figs,  grapes,  raisins,  etc.,  should  be  given,  and  not  more  than  200  grins.  [7  oz.] 
of  meat). 

1  In  winter  increase  all  these  rations  by  one-fourth.  Rations  should  be 
selected  and  apportioned  according  to  the  table  which  follows. 


Table    of  Foods   in    Ordinary    Use.1 

Calories. 

641-23 
65-53 
36-06 
70-00 
36-94 
96-51 
347-38 
93-81 
155-59 
830-67 
203-46 
271-33 
279-26 
264-71 
254-14 
60-30 
770-91 
97-42 
45-56 
37-90 
305-93 
298-16 
400-43 
464-00 
62-89 
57-88 
154-18 
15464 
523-10 
51483 
556-40 
£06-12 
409-16 
283-69 
253-40 

1  Unless  otherwise  stated  these  values  are  for  fresh  foodstuffs  bought  in  Paris. 

2  Five  days  old. 

3  A.  Balland,  Revue  de  Vintendance,  p.  361,  1907. 

*  These  are  Limousin  chestnuts,  the  most  abundant  species ;  chestnuts  form  an 
important  article  of  diet  in  many  departments  of  France.  The  country  produces 
about  four  million  quintals  (hundredweight  approx.). 

5  Chocolate,  made  from  the  cocoa-bean,  contains  an  alkaloid  principle,  caffeine, 
which  is  a  neuro-muscular  stimulant.  According  to  our  own  investigations  cocoa 
contains  0-16  per  cent,  of  caffeine,  while  100  grammes  of  Chocolat  M enter  contain 
1  gr.  -40  per  100  grammes.  American  chocolate  is  very  rich  in  fats,  containing  26-80 
per  cent,  of  carbohydrates,  47-10  of  fats,  and  12-50  of  proteids.  Its  calorific  power  is 
589-74  (Atwater  and  Woods,  ibid.).  But  the  calorific  power  is  no  criterion  of  the 
quality  of  a  foodstuff. 

8  According  to  Atwater  and  Woods,  Washington  Bulletin,  no.  28,  p.  41  ;   1896. 

7  Jules  Amar,  Le  Rendement  de  la  machine  humain,  pp.  50,  51,  Paris,  1900.  This 
value  refers  to  the  dried  material ;  but  the  average  amount  of  water  contained  in  the 
freshly  made  dish  is  58  per  cent.  It  contains  (in  the  dry  state)  -735  per  cent,  of  normal 
sulphuric  acid.  (See  p.  221.) 

109 


Per  100  Grammns. 

Carbohydrates. 

Fats. 

Proteids 

Almonds,  dried       

18-00 

54-20 

18-10 

Apples         

14-41 

0-06 

1-44 

Apricots,  fresh        

8-10 

0-12 

0-48 

Artichokes,  Jerusalem 

13-07 

0-21 

3-68 

Asparagus    

4-72 

0-41 

3-38 

Bananas 

21-90 

0-09 

1-44 

Beans,  dried            

54-41 

1-32 

27-32 

Beef,  sirloin             

2-54 

1-82 

16-30 

„     heart  

2-20 

4-84 

15-25 

„     suet 

0-00 

90-94 

0-76 

Brains,  calves 

0-12 

16-33 

13-26 

Bread,  home-made2 

58-04 

0-40 

7-25 

„       French  roll 

61-59 

0-24 

5-99 

,.       Viennese      

57-29 

0-11 

7-03 

„       Army3 

53-58 

0-10 

8-05 

Brussels  sprouts 

9-62 

0-58 

3-80 

Butter          

0-00 

83-58 

2-52 

Carp             

0-52 

3-56 

15-34 

Carrots 

9-50 

0-19 

1-19 

Cauliflower,  heart  ... 

4-89 

0-38 

3-51 

Cheese,  Brie            

4-85 

22-45 

19-94 

„        Camembert 

5-95 

21-65 

18-72 

„         Gruyere     

1-79 

26-95 

36-06 

,,         Roquefort... 

3-00 

38-30 

25-16 

Cherries,  sweet 

14-12 

0-09 

1-02 

„         tart         

11-97 

0-40 

1-26 

Chestnuts,  Limousin  4 

33-16 

0-89 

2-47 

:,        large  (marrons) 

32-17 

1-08 

3-15 

Chocolate,  ordinary 

62-65 

25-50 

8-35 

Menier5 

68-90 

21-00 

8-75 

Cocoa  (Congo) 

30-25 

42-40 

11-35 

„      (New  York)'  

37-70 

28-90 

21-60 

Couscous7     ... 

85-40 

2-07 

9-80 

Dates           

67-10 

0-06 

1-96 

Doura 

52-50 

0-44 

8-33 

Per  lot)  Grammes. 


Carbohydrates. 


Fats. 


ProtcicU.      Calories. 


Eggs,  hens' 

Endive         

Figs,  dried 

Fowl,  leg      

Goose  

Grapes         

Gurnard,  red  

Ham  (Potted)         

Hare  

Haricot  beans,  fresh 

„      dried          

Herrings,  fresh        

„        kippered 

Hazelnuts 

Horseflesh  (steak) 

Lentils,  dried 

Lettuce  (Cos)          

Liver  (calves') 
Macaroni1     ... 

Mackerel      

Melon  (Canteloupe) 

Milk  (cow's) 

Mushrooms 

Mutton  (leg) 

Oysters 

Peaches 

Pears 

Peas,  green  ... 

„    dried 

Pork  (leg) 

Potatoes       

Prunes  (pulp) 

Babbits  (leg)  

„       (loin)          

Raisins         

Bice,  white 

Salmon 

Sardines,  fresh  (pilchards). . . 

Sole  

Spinach 

Skate  

Strawberries,  wild 
Tomatoes     ... 

Turnip          

Tripe  

Veal  (round)  

„     (fillet) 

Vermicelli  (ribbon) 

Walnuts       

Whiting       


1-43 
4-02 

53-67 
1-16 
0-58 

17-69 
2-29 
0-73 
2-55 
4-17 

53-68 
0-46 
0-71 

13-22 
1-44 

56-07 
1-74 
1-83 

75-70 
0-28 
3-72 
4-83 
3-68 
2-36 
7-33 

10-36 
9-93 

14-02 

57-76 
1-58 

17-58 

71-44 
0-77 
1-90 

76-70 

75-22 
0-08 
0-57 
1-11 
5-58 
0-17 
8-85 
2-92 
5-57 
4-73 
0-92 
1-22 

75-21 

17-57 


11-04 
0-10 
2-10 

10-95 

18-85 
0-38 
0-98 

33-83 
3-34 
0-28 
1-44 
4-80 

14-97 

61-16 
2-95 
1-45 
0-15 
7-13 
0-65 

15-04 
0-11 
4-12 
0-32 
6-53 
1-43 
0-48 
0-04 
0-24 
1-40 
3-10 
0-04 
0-40 
3-14 
1-97 
0-56 
0-30 

20-00 
2-33 
0-81 
0-33 
0-45 
0-99 
0-10 
0-06 

16-79 
2-28 
4-08 
0-60 

41-98 
0-46 


11-59 
1-04 
2-26 
17-19 
14-24 
049 
22-85 
18-60 
29-88 
1-99 
20-18 
17-23 
51-62 
15-58 
21-95 
2304 
0-92 
19-12 
10-89 
15-67 
0-60 
3-23 
4-50 
17-86 
8-70 
0-86 
0-24 
4-47 
20-56 
20-30 
1-71 
2-37 
23-49 
18-66 
0-45 
8-89 
17-65 
22-12 
17-26 
4-06 
22-08 
1-36 
0-89 
0-47 
19-06 
20-40 
22-27 
11-58 
11-05 
16-15 


153-85 
21-65 
248-42 
174-58 
232-30 
7800 
112-00 
387  10 
163-36 
27-86 
315-93 
116-21 
350-74 
674-64 
122-74 
337-55 
12-27 
150-78 
361-02 
202-26 
18-71 
70-54 
36-45 
142-32 
78-84 
50-37 
42-06 
78-00 
335-85 
117-92 
79-45 
306-26 
126-81 
102-22 
313-41 
347-58 
254-69 
114-23 
82-69 
42-53 
95-32 
50-87 
16-53 
25-31 
250-33 
108-16 
138-43 
361-30 
499-36 
75-53 


1-25 

1  The  various  farinaceous  pastes — macaroni,  spaghetti,  vermicelli,  semolina,  etc. — 
have  much  the  same  composition. 

110 


THE    FACTORS    OF    LABOUR  111 

XLIII.  Observations,  and  Particular  Cases. — As  a  general 
rule,  it  is  a  good  thing  to  ensure  that  vegetable  foods  shall  pre- 
dominate in  our  diet,  without  employing  them  exclusively ; 
for  instance,  we  should  not  exclude  eggs,  milk,  and  the  lighter 
fish  (sole,  whiting,  gurnard,  and  fresh-water  fish). 

Great  care  will  be  taken  that  the  aliments  are  of  good 
quality. 

Restaurants  and  eating-houses  should  be  subjected  to  a 
very  strict  inspection,  for  the  working-classes  are  particularly 
exposed  to  the  frequent  consumption  of  stale  or  spoiled  food- 
stuffs, to  the  detriment  of  their  health.  Cheapness  should 
never  be  made  an  excuse  for  fraud,  and  here  least  of  all. 

The  child,  after  the  period  of  suckling,  must  eat  freely,  on 
account  of  his  growth.  He  will  always  thrive  best  on  mother's 
milk  ;  otherwise  he  should  be  given  cow's  milk,  boiled,  and 
slightly  diluted  with  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  lactose.  Then  pap 
and  bread  and  milk  will  be  given,  and  at  the  age  of  18  months 
meat  broths,  finely  minced  chicken,  mashed  potatoes,  and 
sweets.  At  this  age,  as  later  in  the  case  of  the  adult,  the  bodily 
weight  should  be  kept  under  inspection  ;  in  the  adult  it  should 
be  constant,  while  in  the  child  it  should  steadily  increase.  But 
the  treatment  of  the  nursling  requires  competent  supervision  ; 
in  cases  of  anaemia,  dyspepsia,  or  intestinal  catarrh  a  specialist 
should  be  consulted  without  delay. 

Between  the  ages  of  two  and  nine  to  ten  the  child  absorbs 
90  to  70  calories  per  kilogramme,  or  two  to  three  times  as 
much  as  the  adult.  One  cannot  without  danger  reduce  the 
child's  consumption  of  food,  nor  his  activity,  for  his  organs 
are  undergoing  formation,  and  are  learning  to  perform  their 
functions.  Limitation  is  not  education. 

On  the  further  slope  of  life,  in  the  aged,  the  digestive  function 
becomes  enfeebled,  and  the  expenditure  of  energy  gradually 
diminishes.  Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  fatiguing  the 
gastro-intestinal  organs,  and  to  provide  them  with  easily 
digested  foods ;  farinaceous  foods,  such  as  macaroni  ajid 
vermicelli ;  very  tender  white  meats,  fresh  vegetables,  and 
stewed  fruits.  Sobriety  is  a  necessity  in  old  age  ;  a  sobriety 
which  should  extend  to  all  causes  of  excitation,  in  order 


112         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

that  the  cerebral  system  shall  not  be  unduly  tried.  The 
economical  use  of  food  and  stimulants  prolongs  the  life.  We 
may  cite  the  well-known  example  of  the  Venetian  gentleman 
Luigi  Cornaro  (1464-1566),  who  carried  alimentary  economy 
to  the  verge  of  parsimony,  and  at  the  age  of  94  preached  his 
doctrine  in  a  volume  "  full  of  wit  and  common-sense  " :  1 
Metodo  di  viuere  a  lungo,  with  the  sub-title  Discorsi  della  vita 
sobria  (Padua,  1558).  An  invalid  until  his  fortieth  year, 
having  abused  his  constitution,  he  succeeded  in  completely  re- 
establishing his  health,  and  in  dispensing  with  medicine  of 
any  kind,  thanks  to  the  regimen  which  he  imposed  upon 
himself.  When  almost  a  centenarian  he  even  took  part  in  a 
lawsuit,  which  caused  him  great  annoyance,  without  affecting 
his  health  ;  more,  he  fell  out  of  a  carriage,  but  the  fall  left 
no  traces.  "  Which  plainly  shows,"  he  writes,  "  that  neither 
melancholy,  nor  the  passions  of  the  mind,  are  able  to  produce 
unpleasant  results  in  those  who  live  according  to  rule — and 
that  the  majority  of  accidents  should  not  be  very  dangerous  " 
(Loc.  cit.,  pp.  49,  53). 

It  does  not  enter  into  our  scheme  to  deal,  even  in  passing, 
with  the  question  of  diet,  or  the  science  which  adapts  the 
diet  to  the  state  of  health.  The  science  of  dietetics  stands, 
as  it  were,  at  the  cross-roads  of  physiology,  pathology,  and 
therapeutics  ;  it  must  not  be  degraded  to  form  one  of  the 
departments  of  the  culinary  art.  The  moment  a  sick  man  has 
received  competent  advice  to  carry  out  a  given  regimen,  he 
should  do  his  utmost  to  submit  to  the  latter.  Order  and 
proportion  govern  the  whole  universe.  It  would  be  a  singular 
pretention  to  seek  to  liberate  our  vegetative  life  from  their 
empire  ! 

XLIV.  What  to  Drink. — Alimentation,  in  the  true  sense 
of  the  word,  comprises  the  liquid  part  of  our  diet,  a  very  large 
portion  of  which  is  represented  by  the  fluids  which  enter  into 
our  foodstuffs. 

1  From  an  appreciation  by  Joseph  Addison  in  the  Spectator  for  13  October, 
1711  (see  the  Introduction  to  the  English  translation  of  Cornaro's  book,  The 
Art  of  Living  Long,  p.  21,  1903). 


THE  FACTORS  OF  LABOUR  113 

Water  is  incontestably  and  par  excellence  the  natural  hy- 
gienic beverage,  for  it  is  one  of  the  constituent  elements  of 
all  living  creatures.  We  too  often  forget  that  the  end  of 
drinking  is  a  physiological  end,  which  no  liquid  other  than 
water  can  accomplish  ;  the  organism  strives  to  maintain 
an  invariable  degree  of  hydration.1  Further,  the  water  drunk 
must  be  wholesome,  neither  containing  salts  nor  infected 
with  microbes.  //  is  always  best  to  boil  it  and  to  let  it  stand 
for  twenty-four  hours  in  the  cellar.  It  is  then  free  from  all 
contamination,  and  one  may  be  certain  of  having  a  water 
agreeable  to  the  taste.  On  the  other  hand,  water  favours  the 
digestion,  and  in  particular  the  digestion  of  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates.2 It  infallibly  quenches  the  thirst,  for  thirst  is  sensation 
resulting  from  a  deficiency  of  water,  just  as  the  appetite  is 
a  sensation  announcing  hunger,  or  the  need  of  food.  Both 
sensations  originate  in  a  derangement  of  the  dynamic  condition 
of  the  cells,  which  results  in  a  disturbance  of  the  nervous  system. 

The  custom  has  unfortunately  prevailed  of  regarding 
alcoholic  liquors  as  the  equivalents  of  water ;  and  almost 
everybody  makes  use  of  them.  This  is  an  absolutely  mistaken 
attitude.  Alcohol  is  above  all  a  fuel ;  it  yields  more  than 
7  calories  per  gramme  ;  if  taken  in  doses  of  50  to  60  grammes 
per  diem  it  will  supply  the  organism  with  heat,  and  will  in  part 
do  the  work  of  the  ordinary  foodstuffs  in  this  connection.  But 
it  should  never  be  regarded  as  an  immediate  source  of  increased 
energy,  whether  mechanical  or  intellectual. 

Above  all  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  toxic  effects  of  alcohol. 
The  nerve-cell  is  particularly  sensitive  to  these  effects.  Wines, 
beer,  and  cider  produce  such  effects  by  reason  of  the  alcohol 
which  they  contain ;  but  spirituous  liquids  add  to  these 
toxic  effects  the  terrible  effects  of  the  stupefying  ethers  and 
essences  which  enter  into  their  composition  ;  and  their  sale — 
like  that  of  absinthe,  now  absolutely  forbidden  in  France, 
thanks  to  the  enlightened  zeal  of  M.  Ribot — should  be  pro- 
hibited, or  at  least  restricted.  The  other  alcoholic  drinks 

1  Terroine,   Comptes  rendus  Biologie,  28  March,  1914. 

"Mattill  and  Hawk,  The.  Journ.  of  the  Amer.  Chem.  Soc.,Vo\.  XXXIII., 
p.  1,978,  1912. 

I 


114         THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

may  be  permitted  without  serious  danger,  provided  their  daily 
consumption  does  not  exceed,  say,  half  a  litre  of  wine  (-88  of 
a  pint,  or  about  17|  oz.)  or  a  litre  of  beer  or  cider  (1-76  pints,  or 
about  35  oz.).  A  hygienic  doctrine  which  should  recommend 
such  principles  would  be  understood  by  all,  and  would  in  the 
long  run  triumph  over  the  hideous  evil  known  as  alcoholism.1 

XLV.  The  Effects  of  Alcoholism. — It  may  be  as  well  to 
describe  the  ravages  of  this  disease.  "  The  best  means  of 
insuring  oneself  against  drunkenness,"  said  Anacharsis  the 
Scythian,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  sixth  century  B.C., 
'*  is  to  represent  to  oneself  the  degradation  of  drunken  persons." 

I  will  say  nothing  as  to  this  moral  deterioration  ;  but 
what  of  the  physical !  The  entire  digestive  system  is  irritated  ; 
its  secretions  accumulate  ;  gradually  irritation  gives  way  to 
an  ulcer  which  perforates  the  stomach.  The  "  morning 
phlegm  "  is  the  first  symptom  of  this  degenerative  process. 
Kyrie  and  Schopper2  have  stated  that  the  alcohol  of  wine, 
employed  in  doses  of  100  to  110  grammes  daily,  causes  gastric 
ulcerations,  with  congestion  and  degeneration  of  the  liver, 
finally  leading  to  hepatic  cirrhosis.  The  liver,  that  storehouse 
of  glycogen,  from  which  the  muscles  are  revictualled  by  means 
of  the  blood,  and  which  assists  in  the  production  of  the  heat 
of  the  organism,  is  profoundly  impaired  ;  it  becomes  hard  and 
fibrous,  and  ceases  to  fulfil  its  manifold  functions. 

And  the  circulatory  system  ?  Alcohol  has  a  depressing 
action  on  the  heart ;  the  contractile  power  of  this  organ 
rapidly  diminishes  ;  it  can  no  longer  exert  its  normal  effort, 
nor  its  ordinary  capacity  for  work ;  the  nervous  mechanism 
regulating  its  action  is  paralysed  as  soon  as  the  dose  reaches 
2  grammes  per  kilogramme  of  body-weight 3 ;  the  frequency 
of  the  heart-beats  diminishes,  and  the  depressing  effect  is 
revealed  by  a  prolonged  diastolic  pause.4 

1 1  have  given  all  the  arguments,  whether  of  fact  or  of  doctrine,  on  which 
my  conclusions  are  based,  in  Le  Moteur  Humain,  pp.  198,  283  and  596. 
•  Pentimalli  and  Di  Christina,  Archiv.  di  Fisiol,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  131,  1910. 

3  Kyrie  and  Schopper,  Arch.  f.  Path.  Anat.  u.  Phys.,  Vol.  CCXV.,  p.  309, 1914. 

4  Chistoni,  Arch.  int.  de  Physiol,  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  201,  1914 ;— Galleotti  and  Di 
Jorio,  Arch.  di.  Fisiol,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  401,  1914. 


THE    FACTORS    OF   LABOUR  115 

Degeneration  of  the  heart  may  result  in  death  ;  the  blood- 
vessels, moreover,  become  less  elastic,  and  their  rupture  is  of 
frequent  occurrence :  hence  disastrous  haemorrhages.  In 
this  connection  we  observe,  as  on  the  confines  of  old  age,  a 
degeneration  of  the  tissues — a  sclerification,  giving  rise  to 
arterio-sclerosis.  The  observations  of  Lian *  have  estab- 
lished that  all  heavy  drinkers  suffer  from  arterial  hypertension. 

Lastly,  the  nervous  disorders.  Lussana,  who  experimented 
with  doses  averaging  2  grammes  per  kilogramme  of  body 
weight,  found  that  the  tonicity  of  the  muscles  and  the  reflexes 
was  enfeebled,  a  result  due  to  nervous  depression.2  And  if 
the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  organism  is  sought  for,  it  will 
be  found  that  it  localises  itself,  by  preference,  in  the  brain 
and  the  medulla  oblongata,  finally  arresting  the  respiration 
and  producing  asphyxia.3  The  alcoholic  subject  frequently 
dies  suddenly,  and  from  asphyxia. 

Other  manifestations  of  alcoholism  are  observed,  the 
most  familiar  of  which  are  :  the  characteristic  trembling  of 
the  hands,  headaches,  vertigo,  cramps,  hallucinations  of  the 
senses,  nightmares,  and  above  all,  delirium  tremens,  a  violent 
crisis  in  which  the  conscience  disappears,  rendering  the  man 
capable  of  any  crime.  Even  when  he  is  still  far  removed  from 
this  acute  stage,  the  control  of  his  sensations  and  the  associa- 
tion of  his  ideas  are  far  less  assured  than  usual ;  the  mind 
wavers  ;  there  is  moral  and  physical  deterioration. 

The  alcoholic  offers  little  resistance  to  infectious  maladies  ; 
it  is  on  him  that  tuberculosis  takes  its  firmest  hold  ;  and  in  him 
accumulate  all  the  morbid  taints  and  germs  which,  by  an 
inevitable  physiological  law,  he  will  transmit  to  his  descend- 
ants 4  ;  his  children,  weakly,  atrophied,  or  insane,  die  at  an 
early  age.  Had  not  the  first  legislators  this  law  of  heredity 
in  mind  when  they  announced  that  God  would  punish  the 
transgressor  even  to  the  third  and  fourth  generation  ? 

1  C.  Lian,  Bull.  Acad.  de  Medecine,  9  November,  1915. 

2  Lussana,  Arch,  di  Fisiol.,Vo\.  X.,  p.  269,  1913. 

3  Sabbatini,  ibid.,  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  49-80,  1909. 

*Stookard  and  Papanicolaou,  The  American  Naturalist,  Vol.  L.,  February 
and  March,  1916. 


116         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

The  alcoholic  is  incapable  of  work  which  demands  atten- 
tion, delicacy  of  touch,  and  precision  of  movement.  If  he  is 
wounded,  if  he  breaks  a  bone,  his  recovery  is  slow  and  difficult. 
He  becomes  a  charge  upon  society  much  more  readily  than  the 
sober  man.  How  should  society  not  treat  him  with  disdain  ? 

Concerning  the  organisation  of  the  struggle  against  alcohol- 
ism and  tuberculosis,  see  a  capital  article  by  Albert  Robin,1 
and  a  very  interesting  discussion  between  Chauveau  and 
Landouzy.2 

XLVI.  Physiological  Conditions. — The  organisation  of 
labour  is  founded  on  individual  aptitudes  and  the  general 
condition  of  the  organism  (see  Chapter  II).  An  attentive 
medical  examination  will  enable  one  to  discover  whether 
the  vocation  which  the  subject  intends  to  follow  is  in  accord- 
ance with  his  physiological  resources.  Intellectual  labours 
and  those  demanding  rapidity  of  movement  exhaust  the 
cerebral  energy,  especially  when  protracted.  Thinkers  whose 
health  is  poor,  whose  nervous  potential  is  low,  are  obliged  to 
interrupt  their  work  by  frequent  intervals  of  repose,  and  to 
avoid  lengthy  tasks;  the  connection  to  be  established  between 
their  ideas,  and  the  proportions  to  be  maintained  between  the 
parts  of  an  immense  and  complex  whole,  would  compel  them 
to  exert  an  effort  of  attention  of  which  they  are  not  capable. 
If  they  persist  in  such  an  effort,  disorders  of  the  sight  or 
hearing,  or  the  impatience  of  the  neurasthenic,  warn  them 
of  the  danger,  neurasthenia  being  merely  a  form  of  nervous 
exhaustion.  In  manual  occupations  these  disorders  affect 
the  co-ordination  of  the  movements  :  the  sportsman  and  the 
athlete  are  no  longer  sure  in  their  movements  ;  typists, 
shorthand-writers,  and  compositors  "  drop  their  words "  ; 
dressmakers  miss  their  stitches.  Their  sensitiveness,  generally 
exquisite,  cannot  be  replaced  by  determination  ;  there  must 
be  organic  fitness.  Alcoholics,  accordingly,  should  be  abso- 
lutely excluded  from  such  pursuits.  I  might  say  almost  as 

1  A.  Robin,  Bull.   Acad.  Med.,  15  July,  1913. 

2  A.  Chaveau,  C.  B.   Acad.  Sciences,  Vol.  CLXIL,  pp.  855  and  932;    June, 
1916 ;   L.  Landouzy,  ibid.,  pp.  903  and  967. 


THE  FACTORS  OF  LABOUR  117 

much  of  anaemic  subjects.  In  branches  of  labour  which 
entail  the  exertion  of  great  strength  sprains,  dislocations, 
cramps,  and  lacerations  of  the  muscles  are  of  fairly  frequent 
occurrence  ;  so  that  a  robust  constitution  is  requisite,  exempt 
from  any  defects  which  predispose  one  to  accidents.  Alco- 
holics are  not  fitted  for  such  work  ;  in  them  the  muscles  of  the 
heart  are  debilitated,  and  liable  to  failure,  which  leads  to 
syncope  ;  nor  are  diabetic  subjects,  for  their  muscular  force 
is  diminished  by  at  least  fifty  per  cent.  ;  1  nor  those  suffering 
from  declared  tuberculosis,  nor  ruptured  persons,  etc.  It  is 
obvious  that  those  who  have  been  wounded  in  the  war,  or  have 
suffered  injury  in  industrial  accidents,  but  particularly  the 
former,  should  be  subjected  to  an  examination  which  will 
compute  the  degree  of  their  physiological  resistance  to  fatigue. 

Neither  women  nor  minors  who  have  not  attained  their 
eighteenth  year  should  be  allowed  to  undertake  heavy  work, 
for  they  have  not  the  necessary  strength,  their  musculature 
being  insufficient.  Women  are  weakened  by  menstruation  and 
by  pregnancy ;  the  pains  and  the  lassitude  in  the  loins  and 
legs  persist  for  four  or  five  days  after  each  menstruation  ; 
while  as  a  result  of  pregnancy  the  womb  invades  the  space 
beneath  the  diaphragm,  compresses  the  heart,  and  diminishes 
the  volume  of  the  respirations. 

The  thoracic  muscles  are  in  a  state  of  unnatural  contrac- 
tion, which  results  in  an  actual  condition  of  permanent  fatigue, 
and  there  is  also  a  slo wing-down  of  the  processes  of  nutrition. 
During  this  period  an  industrial  environment  is  highly  per- 
nicious, for  pregnant  women  are  highly  sensitive  to  toxic 
substances  and  infectious  germs,2  which,  passing  from  the 
body  of  the  mother  to  that  of  the  child,  result  in  the  deteriora- 
tion or  death  of  the  latter.  Here,  if  ever,  social  hygiene  may 
profitably  display  its  foresight,  by  organising  prophylaxis 
and  preparing  the  race  to  resist  disease. 

Finally,  attention  should  be  given  to  the  condition  of  the 
senses,  which  are  rarely  perfect.  The  sight  of  the  myopic 
should  be  corrected,  so  that  they  need  not  stoop  over  their 

1  Ducceschi  and  Albarenque,  Archiv.  di  Fisiol,  Vol.  VIII.,  pp.  589-600,  1910. 
2Lewin,  Berl  Klin.  Wochensch.,  p.  701,  1905. 


118         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

work  ;  otherwise  the  body  will  become  misshapen,  acquiring 
the  "  scholar's  stoop,"  and  will  be  more  subject  to  fatigue. 
The  horizon  of  the  myopic  subject  is  limited  ;  the  concave 
lenses  seem  to  enlarge  and  illumine  it ;  the  worker  modifies 
his  attitudes,  corrects  his  movements,  and  shows  a  better 
appreciation  of  the  relative  proportions  of  objects.  This  correc- 
tion is  indispensable  in  the  case  of  jewellers,  engravers,  com- 
positors, authors,  scholars,  etc. 

Colour  vision  must  be  investigated  in  the  case  of  painters, 
decorators,  dyers,  railwaymen,  etc.  Those  who  neglect 
this  precaution  may  encounter  many  causes  of  mortification. 

The  sense  of  hearing  gives  the  worker  his  normal  demeanour, 
as  it  gives  the  singer  his  note  and  the  orator  his  tone.  It  marks 
the  rhythm  of  speech.  It  also  regulates  the  movement  of 
tools  whose  action  is  periodical — planes,  saws,  files,  etc. 
Blacksmiths  and  navvies,  for  example,  strike  with  their 
hammers  in  such  a  way  that  the  latter  do  not  clash  with  one 
another.  Bi-auricular  hearing  helps  us  to  locate  the  origin 
of  sounds  with  accuracy  ;  it  is,  moreover,  far  more  sensitive 
than  the  hearing  of  one  ear  only. — Finally,  in  some  pro- 
fessions it  is  important  that  those  who  follow  them  shall 
possess  an  acute  sense  of  smell.  Such  are  pharmacists,  vint- 
ners, oil  merchants,  cooks.  The  sense  of  smell  may  be  refined 
by  practice,  just  as  it  becomes  fatigued  by  the  continual 
influence  of  odours  (as  in  the  case  of  leather-dressers,  sewer- 
men,  etc.). 

We  might  refer  further  to  the  sense  of  touch,  but  of  this 
we  have  already  spoken,  and  we  shall  return  to  it  when  dealing 
with  the  problem  of  the  blind  ;  so  that  we  may  now  conclude 
this  brief  survey  of  the  internal  factors  of  human  activity. 

XLVII. — B.  EXTERNAL  FACTORS  OF  WORK  :  THE  ATMOS- 
PHERIC ENVIRONMENT. — For  the  same  reason  I  shall  be  sparing 
of  details  of  the  external  factors,  the  chief  of  which  is  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air.  When  this  temperature  falls  the  respira- 
tory exchanges  are  stimulated,  and  the  production  of  heat 
increases,  enabling  our  bodies  to  remain  at  their  normal  thermal 
level.  It  is  by  the  intervention  of  those  contractions  of  the 


THE    FACTORS    OF   LABOUR  119 

cutaneous  muscles  which  we  know  as  a  shiver  (Ch.  Richet) 
that  this  phenomenon  of  extra  stimulation  is  produced.  It 
originates  in  a  peripheral  reflex.1  As  the  external  temperature 
rises  we  have  less  need  of  this  thermogenesis.  At  20°  Cent. 
(68°  Fahr.)  the  organism  enters  the  zone  of  indifferent  tem- 
peratures, and  the  minimum  of  respiratory  exchanges  corre- 
sponds with  a  temperature  of  27°  to  28°  Cent.  (80-6°  to 
824°  Fahr.).2  But  having  regard  to  the  contractive  effort 
of  the  muscles,  one  cannot,  without  greatly  diminishing  this 
effort,  labour  in  an  environment  heated  above  18°  Cent. 
(64-4°  Fahr.).  In  summer,  or  in  hot  climates,  the  muscles 
contract  swiftly,  but  are  incapable  of  sustained  action  ;  it  is 
the  muscular  fibre  itself  which  is  debilitated,  for  the  nerve- 
centres  are  little  affected  by  temperatures  between  95°  and 
104°  Fahr.3 

The  toxic  waste  products  become  abundant ;  they  exist 
in  the  blood,  the  perspiration,  and  the  urine.  It  then  becomes 
necessary  to  cleanse  the  interior  of  the  organs  by  a  moderate 
vegetarian  diet  and  by  the  use  of  beverages  in  which  water 
predominates,  and  at  the  same  time  to  cleanse  the  exterior 
of  the  body  by  washing  the  surface  of  the  skin  thoroughly  and 
frequently. 

In  winter,  or  in  cold  climates,  the  movements  are  languid, 
slow,  but  capable  of  sustained  action  ;  the  nervous  reactions 
lack  vivacity,  and  eventually  the  worker  does  not  properly 
co-ordinate  his  movements,  and  modifies  or  controls  them 
without  delicacy.  I  have  noted  in  many  workshops  that  the 
best  work  is  obtained  in  a  temperature  of  13°  to  14°  Cent. 
(55-4°  to  57-2°  Fahr.),  when  the  buildings  are  spacious  and 
well  ventilated.  Offices  and  living-rooms  should  be  heated  to 
17°  to  18°  Cent.  (62-6°  to  64-4°  Fahr.).  For  persons  whose 
work  keeps  them  motionless,  the  temperature  of  the  air  should 
not  fall  below  62-4°  Fahr. 

The  atmosphere  subjects  us  also  to  various  other  influences  : 
barometrical  pressure,  hygrometrical  conditions  (humidity  or 

1  Sjostrom,  Skand.   Arch.  f.  Physiol.,  Vol.  XXX.,  p.  1.,  1913. 

2  Ignatius,  Lund,  and  Warri,  ibid.,  Vol.  XX.,  p.  226,  1908. 
3Broca  and  Richet,   Arch,  de  Physiol.,  p.  871,  1897. 


120         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

dryness),  aerial  currents,  dust,  etc.  The  inconveniences  resulting 
therefrom  are  manifold.  In  weaving-sheds  and  spinning- 
mills  it  is  important  to  alleviate  the  heat  and  humidity  by 
the  use  of  proper  ventilating  apparatus  ;  otherwise  serious 
symptoms  will  make  their  appearance ;  the  perspiration 
being  diminished  in  the  warm,  saturated  atmosphere,  there 
results  a  retention  of  toxic  substances  in  the  blood,  a  process 
of  slow  poisoning,  which  is  betrayed  by  the  anaemic  aspect  of 
textile  operatives,  and  their  diminished  resistance  to  infection. 

The  influence  of  barometrical  pressure  and  of  altitude  is  also 
interesting ;  but  it  is  a  complex  question,  for  which  we  must 
refer  the  reader  to  our  volume  on  Le  Moteur  Humain,  pp.  322- 
332.  The  cold  adds  its  effect  to  that  of  the  altitude  ;  the 
organism  is  weakened  thereby  ;  and  while  the  heart  remains 
normal,  with  a  constant  arterial  pressure,1  we  find  that  the 
muscular  force  is  diminished,  while  the  nerve-centres  function 
irregularly.2  An  engineer  has  even  stated  that  "  at  an  altitude 
of  5,000  metres  (16,250  ft.)  a  mine  of  golden  sovereigns  all  ready 
minted  would  hardly  be  exploitable." 

We  must  also  mention  the  case  in  which  work  is  done  in 
compressed  air,  as  in  diving-bells,  caissons,  diving-dress,  boring- 
shields,  etc.  Working  under  such  conditions  often  gives  rise 
to  "  caisson  disease."  The  respiration  slows  down ;  the 
compressed  air  is  dissolved  in  the  blood  in  greater  volume 
than  usual,  and  when  decompression  occurs  it  leaves  the  blood, 
being  liberated  into  the  cellular  tissue.  The  results  are 
itching,  pricking  pains,  and  sometimes  tumefactions.  The 
most  dangerous  moment  is  that  of  emerging  from  the  caisson. 
"  One  pays  only  on  leaving,"  as  the  French  proverb  has  it. 
Gaseous  embolisms  are  more  frequent  and  more  dangerous 
in  fat  subjects  ;  they  may  be  fatal. 

On  diving  there  is  a  ringing  in  the  ears,  sometimes  accom- 
panied by  pain,  which  disappears  upon  the  act  of  swallowing. 
During  work  a  certain  difficulty  of  movement  is  experienced, 
with  a  feeling  of  rigidity  in  the  joints. 

1  Guillemard  and  Regnier,  C.B.  Acad.  Sc.,  8  November,  1913. 

2  A.  Mosso,  Fisiol.  del  uomo  suite  Alpi,  pp.  7,  11,  Milan,  1897  (2nd  ed.,  1910). 


THE    FACTORS    OF   LABOUR  121 

Lastly,  the  arterial  pressure  increases  by  1  to  3  centimetres, 
denoting  an  excessive  cardiac  effort ;  and  there  is  a  marked 
tendency  to  fatigue.  The  blood  presents  the  characteristics 
of  anaemia  ;  there  is  a  diminution  of  the  number  of  red  blood 
corpuscles,  and  of  the  amount  of  haemoglobin,  which  persists 
after  work  has  ceased  ;  these  are  indications  of  a  certain 
derangement  of  the  haematopoiesis,  or  the  process  of  blood- 
making.1 

XLVIII.  Clothing. — We  protect  ourselves  from  the  effects 
of  temperature  by  covering  our  bodies  more  or  less  thoroughly  ; 
but  we  are  ill  protected  against  the  variations  of  atmospheric 
pressure  and  humidity. 

The  choice  of  clothing  should  satisfy  a  threefold  condition  : 
it  should  protect  the  body  from  the  cold,  or  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
should  permit  of  a  ready  cutaneous  transpiration,  and  should 
leave  the  limbs  their  full  liberty. 

Wool  is  by  far  the  most  hygienic  material  for  clothing  ;  still, 
in  summer  one  may  have  recourse  to  white  flannelette,  which 
absorbs  the  solar  rays  with  difficulty,  and  prevents  a  too 
rapid  evaporation  of  the  perspiration.  Workers  who  are 
employed  on  the  heavier  kinds  of  physical  work  would  do  well 
always  to  wear  woollen  clothing,  more  or  less  light  in  quality. 
The  belt  should  be  replaced  by  elastic  braces,  and  no  tight 
garments  should  be  worn  to  impede  the  circulation  and 
respiration  ;  a  tightly  buckled  belt  makes  sustained  effort 
difficult,  and  diminishes  the  thoracic  expansion.  We  need 
hardly  add  that  cleanliness  of  clothing  is  conducive  to  the 
health  of  the  wearer,  while  it  shows  that  he  is  careful,  heedful, 
and  orderly. 

XLIX.  Entertainments  — Amusements  —  Rest. — Many 
are  the  factors  which  cannot  be  mentioned  in  this  survey,  but 
which  favour  or  impede  human  activity.  But  I  should  like  to 
say  a  few  words  as  to  amusements.  They  are  useful ;  they  are 
even  necessary ;  in  the  uniformly  hard  life  of  the  worker  they 
are  actual  nervous  restoratives;  the  stimulations  which  they 

1  Solovtsov,  Rousski  Vratch,  Vol.  XIII.,  pp.  511,  616,  1914. 


122          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

afford  the  senses  cause  a  reinforcement  of  the  motor  reactions. 
If,  as  has  been  proved  by  experiment,  these  stimulations  are 
sometimes  disagreeable  and  inhibitory,  the  worker  avoids 
them.  Consequently  any  good  performance  or  entertainment 
which  is  of  good  quality,  and  wholesome,  constitutes  a  factor 
of  work.  A  recreation-room,  close  to  the  workshop  or  factory, 
is  soon  paid  for  by  the  increased  production  which  results  from 
the  contented  spirit  of  the  workers. 

Here  the  daily  hours  of  rest  will  find  excellent  employment. 
And  I  imagine  that  the  working-man  will  form  a  habit  of 
devoting  a  portion  of  his  weekly  rest  to  instructive  and 
recreative  walks,  or  merely  to  amusements  ;  the  rest  being 
devoted  to  the  affairs  of  domestic  life  ;  to  his  family,  to  his 
home.  If  he  regulates  his  life,  if  he  has  a  little  method, 
these  last  occupations  will  not  occupy  him  long,  nor  weigh 
heavily  upon  him  ;  so  that  the  weekly  holiday  will  be  what  it 
ought  to  be,  humanly  and  physiologically;  a  rest,  which 
repairs  the  organism,  a  veritable  truce  with  fatigue.  How 
many  so  understand  it  ?  It  would  not  be  difficult  to  count 
them. 

L.  Equipment  and  Labour. — I  will  remark,  in  conclusion, 
that  the  very  conditions  of  muscular  work,  regulated  as  to 
effort,  pace,  and  hours  of  labour,  are  also  properly  external 
factors — and  the  most  important  of  external  factors.  How- 
ever, we  have  considered  them  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter. 
There  remains  the  question  of  equipment.  It  is  very  obvious 
that  every  worker  should  get  together  a  stock  of  tools  adapted 
to  the  nature  of  his  work,  selecting  the  best,  and  that  he  should 
adopt  the  attitude  which  involves  the  least  fatigue.  It  is  the 
same  whether  he  reads  and  writes,  sews  and  embroiders,  or 
observes  and  experiments.  It  is  particularly  important  in  the 
case  of  the  working-man,  and  most  important  in  that  of  the 
wounded  man,  the  cripple,  who  is  to  be  re-educated  or  re- 
adapted.  There  are  three  conditions  which  should  be  realised  : 

To  arrange  the  workshop  or  factory  in  such  a  way  that  there 
is  no  loss  of  time  or  energy. 

To  determine  the  shape,  the  quality,  and  the  pace  which 


THE  FACTORS  OF  LABOUR  123 

will  ensure  the  maximum  output  from  the  plant,  and  to 
favour  the  introduction  of  machinery. 

To  fulfil,  in  the  workshop,  the  conditions  of  lighting  and 
ventilation  which  make  for  normal  activity. 

I  will  illustrate  these  principles  by  an  example  drawn  from 
the  Art  of  the  Mason,  specially  worked  out  by  Gilbreth  : 1 

1.  Is    the    bricklayer   left-handed  ?     The    position    of   the 
bricks  and  mortar  will  be  changed,  in  order  to  facilitate  his 
movements. 

2.  The  hods  of  bricks  will  weigh  from  27  to  40  kilogrammes 
(about  60  Ibs.  to  90  Ibs.)  according  to  the  strength  of  the  hod- 
man ;    the  hammer  for  breaking  material  will  be  4  Ibs.  in 
weight,  and  the  hammer  for  shaping  4-3  Ibs.  ;   the  spade  for 
shifting  materials  will  be  21|  Ibs.  in  weight,  and  two  different 
trowels  will  be  provided  for  ordinary  bricks  and  agglomerate 
bricks. 

3.  Bricks  and  mortar  will  be  arranged  by  an  assistant  within 
reach  of  the  bricklayer,  so  that  he  is  able  to  seize  the  brick  by 
a  natural  movement,  which  makes  use  of  gravity,  and  not  by 
a  constrained  movement ;    above  all,   so  that  he  does  not 
need  to  stoop  or  move  from  his  place  or  sway  his  body  in  one 
direction  or  another. 

4.  The  mortar  which  is  dropped  during  work  will  not  be 
picked  up  ;   a  bag  of  cement  will  not  be  opened  by  tearing  the 
paper   and   separating  the  various   thicknesses  ;    the   paper 
will  be  cut  open  by  a  blow  of  the  spade,  at  the  base  of  the 
bag,  and  the  latter  will  be  emptied  by  jerking  the  other  end 
of  it.     Lastly,  it  costs  less  to  use  good  cement  to  fill  a  gap  less 
than  half  a  brick  in  width  than  to  break  a  brick  or  to  look  out  a 
piece  to  fill  the  gap.2 

To  these  measures,  which  simplify  and  accelerate  the 
worker's  task,  we  must  add  such  as  economise  his  efforts, 
whether  this  involves  a  new  implement,  enabling  him  to  do 
the  work  without  fatigue,  or  the  use  of  perfected  machinery, 
whose  control  is  mere  play  to  the  worker.  When  we  think 
of  the  great  number  of  weak  and  mutilated  workers  who  would 

1F.  Gilbreth,  Motion  Study,  1911. 

2  For  details  see  Le  Moteur  Humain,  pp.  579-583. 


124          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

find,  in  such  a  transformation  of  the  technical  instruments  of 
work,  the  means  to  make  themselves  useful,  and  to  earn  a 
secure  living,  one  can  but  hope  that  such  innovations  will  be 
made  in  our  industries,  which  are,  unfortunately,  slow  to  shake 
off  the  yoke  of  routine. 

These  few  hints  will  enable  the  reader  to  appreciate  the 
importance  of  a  rational  organisation  of  the  technical  instru- 
ments of  work,  and  of  the  workers,  and  of  the  economy  thereby 
effected,  and  the  lessons  which  it  so  abundantly  teaches. 
Without  such  organisation  the  art  of  labour  would  not  exist, 
and  this  art  is  the  source  of  all  prosperity. 


CHAPTER    VI 
THE  ART  OF  LABOUR 

PHYSICAL  ACTIVITY 

LI. — The  modes  of  human  activity  are  infinite.  They  must 
be  analysed  into  their  constituent  elements — mechanical, 
physiological,  and  psychological — in  order  that  we  may  effect 
all  the  improvements  desirable  in  each  of  these  spheres. 

The  most  urgent  task  of  social  reform  is  precisely  to 
investigate  the  means  of  developing,  and  devoting  to  useful 
ends,  our  human  resources  of  energy.  This  task  is  one  which 
concerns  the  economist,  the  engineer,  the  legislator,  the 
physician,  the  parent,  and  the  teacher,  for  its  aspects  are 
social  energetics,  manual  craftsmanship,  and  physical  education* 

The  activity  of  man  is  one  as  regards  its  essential  laws,  but 
its  forms  and  aspects  are  varied,  as  are  its  applications.  We 
shall  consider  these  only  so  far  as  will  enable  us  to  take  a  rapid 
survey  of  them. 

LIL — A.  The  Handicrafts.  Examples — the  use  of  the 
file  and  the  plane.1 

A  fair  idea  may  be  obtained  of  the  method  underlying  our 
efforts  by  the  following  example,  relating  to  the  use  of  the  file. 
As  we  have  already  explained,  the  tool  is  equipped  and  con- 
nected with  appliances  which  make  a  direct  record  of  all  the 
efforts  exerted  by  the  worker.  These  give,  in  a  graphic  form, 
the  path  and  the  speed  of  his  movements,  a  precise  idea  of 
their  regularity  or  their  detects,  and  the  amount  of  muscular 
force  expended. 

Jules  Amar,  Journal  de  Physiologic,  p.  62,  1913. 
125 


126         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

On  the  other  hand,  the  energy  which  the  organism  devotes 
to  the  work  performed  is  estimated  in  calories,  very  exactly, 
by  measuring  and  analysing  the  respiratory  exchanges.  The 
apparatus  employed  is  shown  in  Fig.  45,  where  we  see  a  young 
apprentice  using  the  file.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  mouth- 


FIG.  45. — An  Apprentice  using  the  File.     Method  of  estimating  Fatigue. 


piece  of  the  respiration  gauge  is  supported  by  a  metallic  band 
which  fits  over  the  crown  of  the  head.  Pure  air  is  supplied 
from  without  by  means  of  a  flexible  tube,  and  the  gases 
expired  are  collected  in  a  gauge,  from  which  a  sample  is  taken 
later  on  for  analysis.  Tried  first,  and  many  times,  upon 
myself,  this  method  has  for  ten  years  given  proof  of  its  sim- 
plicity and  reliability.  During  that  time  it  has  been  applied 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  127 

to  about  a  thousand  persons — Parisian  working-men,  soldiers, 
and  natives  of  North  Africa.  It  is  therefore  of  universal 
applicability,  and,  for  that  reason,  eminently  scientific. 

The  use  of  large  metal-workers'  files,  when  investigated  on 
the  lines  already  explained,  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most 
interesting  subjects  for  consideration.  If  the  man  who 
handles  the  tool  is  a  good  workman,  skilful  and  well  trained, 
we  find  that  graphic  analysis  furnishes  us  with  regular  curves, 
which  are  obtained  without  an  excessive  expenditure  of  force  ; 
the  muscular  action  is  uniform  and  disciplined,  while  the 
respiration  is  regular,  as  we  may  see  by  the  tracings  in  Fig.  25 
(p.  72). 


FlG.  46. — Economic  Attitude  of  Man  filing  Metal. 

By  correcting  the  trifling  defects  of  attitude  displayed  by 
the  worker,  as  well  as  his  conventional  or  rule-of-thumb  habits, 
in  the  light  of  the  results  of  our  dynamic  and  energetic  measure- 
ments, we  have  been  able  to  determine  the  normal  position 
of  the  feet,  the  proper  distance  of  the  body  from  the  vice, 
vertically  and  horizontally,  and  the  positions  of  the  hands 
with  regard  to  the  tool  (Fig.  46).  When  these  conditions  are 
fulfilled  the  worker's  fatigue  is  diminished  without  injury  to  his 
daily  output. 

We  may  note,  in  Fig.  25,  the  great  regularity  of  the  work, 
the  truly  horizontal  action  of  the  file  being  represented  by 
uniform  curves,  while  the  return  strokes  are,  as  they  should 
be,  effortless  ;  the  subject,  moreover,  is  working  at  a  normal 
pace,  the  stroke  of  the  file  utilising  the  whole  working  length  of 


128          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

the  tool.  After  eight  months  of  experiment  and  investigation 
we  succeeded  in  working  out  the  laws  of  the  maximum  of 
production  with  the  minimum  of  fatigue,  the  metal  being 
brass,  and  the  file  a  "  half-rough  "  tool  35cm.  (about  13|  in.) 
in  length. 

"  The  body  of  the  worker  should  be  vertical,  but  without 
rigidity,  at  a  distance  of  20  cm.  (about  8  ins.)  from  the  vice, 
the  latter  being  at  the  level  of  the  navel ;  the  position  of  the 
feet  should  be  as  follows:  the  angle  of  divergence,  68°;  the 
distance  between  the  heels,  25  cm.  (10  ins.) ;  the  left  arm  should 
be  completely  extended,  and  should  press  upon  the  tool 
rather  more  heavily  than  the  right  arm,  their  respective 
efforts  being  8-5  and  7-5  kilogrammes  (18f  and  \1\  Ibs.).  The 
return  stroke  of  the  file  should  consist  of  a  simple  sliding 
movement,  without  pressure.  Finally,  the  rhythm  of  the 
movements  is  70  per  minute. 

"  All  these  conditions  being  fulfilled,  5  minutes'  work  will 
be  followed  by  I  minute  s  complete  repose,  the  arms  falling  to 
the  sides. 

"  The  respirations  and  the  heart-beats  then  undergo  an 
average  increase  of  not  more  than  25  and  20  per  cent,  respec- 
tively, in  comparison  with  the  figures  obtained  during  repose. 
The  local  fatigue  of  the  right  forearm  is  endurable,  while 
general  fatigue  is  hardly  perceptible.  The  maximum  output 
is  at  least  double  the  ordinary  output  of  the  great  majority 
of  workers." 

In  this  particular  case  600  grammes  (1-32  Ibs.)  of  filings  were 
removed  per  diem,  the  day  consisting  of  7  hours'  effective 
work. 

LIII. — APPRENTICES. — In  addition  to  this  ideal  output,  we 
should  determine  an  average  output,  that  accomplished  by  the 
majority  of  workers  who  know  their  trade,  and  are  normally 
constituted.  This  varies  little.  It  is  found  to  correspond 
with  the  graphic  records  of  similar  regular  efforts.  We  find, 
in  fact,  that  muscular  action  is  exercised  in  the  same  fashion, 
and  yields  the  same  analysis,  or  almost  the  same,  in  all  these 
men,  when  they  are  employing  the  same  tool.  It  varies  only 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR 


129 


in  its  absolute  value,  principally  because  the  worker  is  lacking 
in  skill ;  or  above  all,  because  he  is  a  beginner. 

But  in  the  case  of  atrophy  of  the  muscles,  or  functional  weak- 
ness, which  diminishes  the  strength  and  the  play  of  the  limbs, 


FIG.  47. — Graphic  Records  of  the  Work  of  an  Apprentice  filing  Metal. 

the   tracings    became    irregular,    the    action    of   the   muscles 
being  unequal  and  obviously  abnormal. 

In  the  case  of  a  beginner  who  is  handling  a  large  file,  the 
muscular  efforts  are  considerable,  unequal,  ill-directed,  and  too 


130          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

sudden.  At  the  end  of  two  minutes  the  young  man  is  out  of 
breath  ;  his  respirations  are  irregular,  proceeding  by  fits  and 
starts  (Fig.  47) ;  it  is  extremely  interesting  to  compare  them 
with  those  of  a  good  workman.  An  enforced  halt  becomes 
necessary,  which  is  not  the  intentional  and  restorative  period  of 
repose  ;  the  wastage  of  energy  amounts  to  66  per  cent,  of  the 
best  output. 

The  apprentice  seems  to  hurl  himself  upon  the  vice  ;  he 
leans  his  body  forward,  and  erects  it  again  on  the  return  stroke 
of  the  file ;  these  oscillations  of  the  body  exhaust  him,  the  more 
so  because,  in  order  to  put  a  swing  into  the  forward  stroke  of 
the  tool,  he  places  his  feet  incorrectly,  lacks  equilibrium,  and, 
in  a  word,  annuls  a  portion  of  his  efforts.  When  one  comes  to 
take  a  cinematographic  photograph  of  the  beginner  at  the 
work-bench,  his  oscillations  and  ill-controlled  movements  are 
strikingly  revealed.  As  a  rule  the  so-called  instructor,  when 
correcting  a  beginner,  advises  him  to  hold  himself  erect  and 
rigid.  Now  this  absence  of  elasticity  results  in  fatiguing  con- 
tractions of  the  muscles  of  the  trunk ;  moreover,  it  produces  an 
awkwardness,  a  gaucherie,  which  is  a  common  fault  of  beginners. 
The  classic  apprenticeship  is  not  without  a  certain  amount  of 
blockish  stupidity. 

We  have,  for  purposes  of  demonstration,  trained  an  appren- 
tice, a  boy  of  15,  with  the  help  of  the  graphic  method.  He 
himself  was  able  to  read,  in  the  irregularity  of  the  tracings 
obtained,  the  effects  of  his  inexperience,  and  to  correct  him- 
self accordingly  ;  he  assured  himself,  by  the  weight  of  filings 
removed  hour  by  hour,  of  the  truth  of  the  scientific  principles 
of  craftsmanship  ;  and,  apart  from  personal  instruction, 
he  received  a  veritable  object-lesson  to  the  effect  that  the 
intelligently  trained  workman  performs  more  useful  work 
and  squanders  less  of  his  strength.  This  was  proved  by  the 
dynamographic  curves  and  the  figures  relating  to  the  consump- 
tion of  oxygen. 

Having  illustrated  the  ideas  already  expounded  by  this 
example  of  work  with  the  file,  we  need  not  analyse  in  detail 
the  elements  of  the  work  performed  by  the  joiner  using  the 
jointing-plane  (Fig.  48).  Here  again  we  have  a  periodical 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR 


131 


action,     a    to-and-fro    movement    involving    a    determined 
effort    and   rhythm.     As    has    already   been   explained,    the 


apparatus  employed  makes  it  possible  to  discipline  the  move- 
ments and  to  direct  them  properly.  The  efforts  exerted  are 
likewise  disciplined,  by  the  employment  of  a  simple  device; 


132         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

an  electrical  circuit,  containing  an  electric  bell,  is  closed  by  the 
inscribing  stylus  and  a  contact-piece,  thus  enabling  us  to  limit 
the  pressure  of  the  hand  to  5,  10,  or  15  kilogrammes  (11,  16  J,  or 
22  Ibs.),  as  the  bell  is  heard  the  moment  the  selected  limit  is 
exceeded.  In  this  manner  the  apprentice  can  check  himself, 


Working  with  the  Jointing-  plane 

lAAA^ 

Total    eFFort  on  the  handle. 


of  the  tool 


erks   to  the  right. 


FIG.  49. — Records  made  by  a  Joiner's  Apprentice. 

and  can  even  acquire,  in  a  very  short  time,  a  sense  of  effort, 
and  a  notion  of  uniform  work.  If  the  plank  which  he  is  planing 
is  changed  for  one  of  a  different  kind  of  wood,  he  perceives  that 
his  effort  encounters  a  different  resistance,  and  he  quickly 
gains  experience  of  the  value  of  his  tools.  The  total  pressure 
on  the  handle,  in  the  case  of  a  jointing-plane  in  good  order, 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  133 

amounts,  on  an  average,  to  25  kilogrammes  (55  Ibs.)  and  the 
pressure  on  the  wood  to  12  kilogrammes  (26-4  Ibs.).  From  this 
it  follows  that  the  resistance  encountered  by  the  iron  of  the 
plane  is  equivalent  to  22  kilogrammes  (48-4  Ibs.).  The  muscles 
of  an  apprentice  or  a  wounded  man  may  be  overtaxed  by 
protracted  exertion  of  this  kind.  But  it  is  evident  that  a 
number  of  factors  go  to  modify  the  degree  of  strength  required 
for  such  work  (the  nature  of  the  wood,  the  thickness  of  the 
shavings,  etc.),  the  most  important  of  these  being  technical 
instruction  (Fig.  49). 

LIV. — THE  CASE  OF  THOSE  WHO  ARE  INCAPACITATED  FROM 
LABOUR. — Very  different  are  the  conditions  of  activity  in  the 
•case  of  persons  who  suffer,  in  any  degree  whatsoever,  from  a 
functional  incapacity,  or  from  mutilation.  We  are  speaking  of 
the  victims  of  industrial  accidents,  and  the  numerous  workers 
who  have  been  crippled  as  a  result  of  wounds  received  in  battle. 
This  question  we  shall  consider  later  on.  But  we  would  lay 
stress  upon  the  pedagogic  function  of  the  foregoing  method, 
in  re-educating  and  re-adapting  all  these  wounded  soldiers, 
in  determining  the  degree  of  physical  diminution  which  they 
have  suffered,  and  in  guiding  them  to  the  choice  of  a  trade. 

Apprenticeship,  in  any  case,  demands  a  re-education  in  the 
light  of  the  data  obtained  by  experiment. 

LV. — THE  CARRYING  OF  BURDENS. — In  1907  we  had  occasion 
to  study  the  carrying  of  burdens  on  the  lines  of  the  method 
which  we  have  just  explained.1  Hundreds  of  workmen  and 
soldiers  were  placed  at  our  disposal  during  a  period  of  several 
months.  We  will  indicate  only  the  results  obtained  : 

1. — Walking  on  the  Level — On  a  truly  horizontal  surface,  the 
most  economical  rate  of  progress  is  4-5  kilometres  (2-8  miles) 
an  hour.  This  enables  an  unburdened  man  to  cover  45  to  50 
kilometres  (28  to  31  miles)  in  the  day,  with  2  minutes'  rest  at 
every  kilometre. 

When  the  man  is  carrying  a  burden  the  economical  pace, 
that  which  costs  the  organism  least,  is  4-2  kilometres  (2-6 

1  Jules  Amar,  Le  rendement  de  la  machine  humains,  Paris,  1909.  (Doctor's 
Thesis  ;  o:u  of  prLit). 


134          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

miles)  an  hour,  the  burden  weighing  from  20  to  22  kilogrammes 
(44  to  48-4  Ibs.).  But  to  realise  the  maximum  daily  per- 
formance, the  weight  of  the  load  should  be  45  kilogrammes 
(99  Ibs.)  and  the  rate  of  progress  4-8  kilometres  (3  miles)  an 
hour,  while  the  day's  work  should  consist  of  1\  hours,  with 
2  minutes'  rest  every  600  metres  (650  yards).  An  adult  of 
25  to  40  years  of  age  can  carry  this  load  of  99  Ibs.  for  an 
average  distance  of  26  kilometres  (16  miles)  a  day.  But  if  the 
pace  is  increased  to  5-5  kilometres  (3-4  miles)  an  hour,  the 
distance  will  be  reduced  by  almost  one  half,  no  matter  how 
the  intervals  of  rest  may  be  arranged.  Multiplying  the 
distance  in  metres  by  the  weight  in  kilogrammes  of  the 
man  and  his  load,  and  we  shall  obtain  a  figure  of  not  more 
than  three  million  metre-kilogrammes  as  the  daily  output, 
the  average  being  two  and  a  half  million  metre-kilogrammes. 
Experiment  gives  J  calorie  as  the  equivalent  of  1,000 
metre-kil  ogrammes . 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  carrying  of  pigs  of  cast  iron,, 
each  weighing  42  kilogrammes  (92-4  Ibs.),  Taylor,  in  1912, 
obtained  similar  results,  his  figure  being  two  and  a  half  million 
metre-kilogrammes.  The  rate  of  progress  and  intervals  of 
rest,  however,  do  not  altogether  agree  with  our  results,  and  his 
methods  are  different.  But  this  only  makes  the  result  more 
interesting.  As  for  the  foot-soldier,  it  is  best  to  give 
him  a  total  burden  of  30  kilogrammes  (66  Ibs.),  while  his. 
normal  pace  should  not  exceed  5  kilometres  (3-1  miles)  an  hour. 
In  connection  with  the  subject  of  troops  on  the  march,  this 
is  a  fitting  moment  to  speak  of  a  practice  of  which  somewhat 
erroneous  views  are  held  :  I  mean  the  practice  of  resting  the 
men  by  making  them  mark  time  for  a  few  minutes.  Now 
marking  time  expends  energy;  it  costs  a  third  as  much, 
sometimes  half  as  much,  as  marching.  We  have  measured 
this  expenditure  of  energy,  and  find  that  it  increases  in  pro- 
portion to  the  rhythm  of  the  steps  and  the  height  to  which  the 
feet  are  raised.  Marking  time  should  therefore  be  moderated 
in  respect  of  the  two  constituent  factors,  in  order  that  it  may 
be  reduced  to  a  mere  species  of  massage,  which  takes  the  stiff- 
ness out  of  one's  legs. 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  135 

LVI. — 2.  Carrying  Burdens  Upstairs. — -In  carrying  burdens 
upstairs  the  conditions  of  the  maximum  output  are  :  The 
weight  of  the  burden  should  be  40  kilogrammes  (88  Ibs.). 
The  pace  should  be  430  metres  (1,370  ft.)  per  hour.  The 
day's  work  should  be  limited  to  7  hours,  2  minutes'  rest 
being  taken  on  each  journey  of  8  metres  (26  ft.)  measured 
vertically. 

The  expenditure  of  energy  is  then  represented  by  8  calories 
per  1,000  kilogramme-metres  (1  calorie  per  893  foot-pounds), 
the  unit  here  called  a  kilogramme-metre  x  being  equivalent, 
in  the  energetical  meaning  of  the  word,  to  16  times  the  con- 
ventional unit  described  as  the  metre-kilogramme.  In  other 
words,  we  expend  the  same  effort  in  covering  16  metres  on  the 
level  as  in  lifting  ourselves  through  a  height  of  1  metre  in  the 
same  time. 

When  we  descend  a  staircase  the  contraction  of  the  muscles 
is  less  than  on  ascending ;  it  is  employed  principally  in 
restraining  our  tendency  to  fall,  and  the  more  rapid  the 
descent  the  less  energy  is  expended.  We  may  estimate  the 
saving  of  energy  effected  by  the  muscles  as  50  per  cent.,  so 
that  we  expend  barely  4  calories  per  1,000  kilogramme-metres 
of  descent. 


LVII. — 3.  Walking  on  an  Inclined  Plane. — The  problem  of 
walking  on  sloping  ground  requires  special  investigation, 
which  demands  a  costly  experimental  equipment.  I  will 
confine  myself  here  to  giving  a  few  results  which  I  was  able  to 
obtain  by  chance  means  (Fig.  50),  and  to  which  the  recent 
contributions  of  the  Carnegie  laboratories  have  added  scarcely 
anything.2 

The  slope  of  my  inclined  plane  varied  from  8  to  13  centi- 
metres in  the  metre  ;  that  is,  the  gradient  was  from  8  to  13 
in  the  100.  Let  us  call  this  inclination  i  (in  centimetres). 

1  The  kilogramme-metre  is,  of  course,  the  metrical  unit  of  work ;    it  is  the 
work  performed  in  lifting  1  kilogramme  to  a  height  of  1  metre,  or  in  exerting 
an  effort  of  1  kilogramme  along  a  path  1  metre  in  length. 

2  Benedict    and    Murschhauser,    Energy    transformations    during    Horizontal 
Walking,  publ.  Xo.  231,  Washington,  1915. 


136          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

The  distance  covered  on  the  slope,  L,  is  deduced  from  the 
distance  covered  on  the  level  by  the  following  ratios  : 

L 

Ascending  :    L'  =  . 


On  descending  :     L  = 


1  +  lOz 

These  ratios   are   approximate,   but   are   quite   sufficiently 
exact  in  practice. 

LVIII. — 4.     Cycling    (Professional). — From    a    very    large 
number  of  experiments  carried  out  by  means  of  our  ergometric 


FIG.  50. — Study  of  Walking  upon  an  Inclined  Plane. 


cycle,  we  determined  the  fact  that  the  normal  rate  of  pedalling 
is  45  to  46  revolutions  per  minute.  This  corresponds  with  an 
economical  pace  of  16  kilometres  (9-94  miles)  an  hour,  which 
does  not  overtax  the  rider.  According  to  Leo  Zuntz,  the 
equivalent  of  1,000  metre-kilogrammes  is  0-27  calories,  which 
is  half  the  equivalent  of  the  work  done  in  walking  the  same 
distance. 

The  bicycle  should  always  be  adapted  to  the  stature  of 
the  cyclist,  as  regards  the  height  of  the  saddle  and  the  length 
of  the  crank.  Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  attitude  of  the 


THE    ART    OF   LABOUR  137 

body,  in  order  to  reduce  its  oscillations,  and  to  diminish  the 
stooping  of  the  bust. 

The  distance  to  be  covered  daily  will  be  determined  after 
examining  the  physiological  condition  of  the  rider,  who  in 
any  case,  but  above  all  if  he  is  addicted  to  racing,  must  abstain 
from  the  employment  of  alcoholic  drinks. 

When  the  bicycle  is  loaded,  or  when  a  cycle  pushes  a  vehicle 
in  front  of  it,  as  in  the  case  of  tradesmen's  delivery  cycles, 
the  speed  will  be  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  load.  Sup- 
posing that  the  driving  wheel  and  the  wheels  which  carry  the 
load  are  of  the  same  diameter,  then  if  the  load  to  be  carried 
is  represented  by  P,  the  speed  will  be  : 
35 

"=VP 

v  being  expressed  in  kilometres  per  hour  and  P  in  kilogrammes. 
This  formula  is  deduced  from  a  consideration  of  the  moving 
forces  of  the  motor  and  the  thing  moved.  In  any  case  the 
load  should  not  be  so  great  that  v  is  lower  than  5  kilometres 
(3-1  miles)  per  hour. 

LIX. — 5.  Agricultural  Labour. — The  agriculturist  will 
henceforth  be  obliged,  to  a  very  great  extent,  to  practise  the 
mechanical  cultivation  of  the  soil,  making  use  of  small  motors. 
We  shall  see  that  these  will  be  of  considerable  utility  to 
discharged  and  wounded  soldiers.  But  we  will  briefly  give 
a  few  figures  relating  to  the  best  output  of  agricultural  workers. 

Digging  or  shovelling  requires  the  employment  of  a  spade 
or  shovel  weighing  1-7  kgs.  (3f  Ibs.).  Loaded,  it  should  not 
weigh  more  than  10-25  kgs.  (20-55  Ibs.)  at  most.  The  effort 
of  thrusting  the  shovel  into  the  earth  should  average  15  kgs. 
(33  Ibs.). 

The  wheelbarrow  should  bear  a  load  of  100  kgs.  (220  Ibs.), 
exerting  a  pressure  of  20  kgs.  (44  Ibs.)  on  the  handles,  while 
the  resistance  offered  to  propulsion  will  be  only  4  kgs.  (8-8  Ibs.). 
The  employment  of  a  two-wheeled  barrow  is  advantageous. 

From  the  agricultural  point  of  view  properly  so-called, 
every  crop  and  every  field  constitutes  a  problem  of  varying 
factors  ;  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  the  nature  and  quantities 


138          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

of  manure  ;  the  amount  of  water  used  for  watering  purposes ; 
its  head  or  pressure ;  the  tilling  of  the  soil ;  the  germination 
of  the  seeds  ;  the  number  of  plants  per  unit  of  surface ; 
mowing  and  reaping ;  fighting  against  parasites  and  stormy 
weather ;  the  propitious  seasons  for  each  of  these  operations  ; 
and  the  perfecting  of  the  implements  employed  ;  all  questions 
which  we  could  not  touch  upon  here  without  diverging  from 
our  programme. 

For  the  rest,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Book  VI.  of  Le 
Moteur  Humain. 

LX. — B.  Physical  Training  and  Functional  Re-Education, 

: — To  our  thinking,  the  aim  of  the  physiological  organisation 
of  labour  is  essentially  utilitarian.  Sports,  athletic  perform- 
ances, etc.,  do  not  greatly  interest  us  ;  a  robust,  well-trained 
workman  is  of  infinitely  greater  value  than  the  most  famous 
athlete ;  while  horse-racing,  that  sport  so  beloved  by  the 
people,  will  never  make  for  the  progress  of  the  equine  race. 
The  war,  I  imagine,  has  opened  the  eyes  of  all  in  this  respect. 

However,  as  an  efficacious  hygiene,  and  a  bodily  discipline, 
physical  training  possesses  one  very  potent  virtue,  from  which 
we  must  not  fail  to  profit.  It  teaches  us  to  control  our 
attitudes,  and  adjust  our  movements,  and  it  trains  our  muscles  ; 
that  is,  it  gives  human  energy  full  play  and  develops  it  to- 
the  utmost. 

It  is  applicable  (but  not  exclusively)  to  normal  subjects,, 
improving  them  physically  and  raising  their  physical  standard  \ 
and  it  may  also  be  extended  to  persons  of  weakly  constitu- 
tion, and  to  those  who  are  physically  backward,  or  are  suffering 
from  physiological  want ;  above  all,  it  may  be  applied  to  the 
functional  re-education  of  the  infirm,  who  are  to-day  sa 
numerous.  I  shall  not  deal  separately  with  education  and 
re-education  ;  their  object  is  the  same  ;  their  methods  are 
the  same,  and  their  province  is  the  same.  Both  are  guided 
by  the  same  scientific  principles. 

LXI. — I.    The   Principles    of    Physical    Training. — The 

principles  of  physical  training  are  those  of  a  muscular  activity 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  139 

varying  its  effort  and  its  pace  by  insensible  degrees,  to  be  deter- 
mined by  the  general  condition  of  the  organism. 

This  effort  will  be  constant,  for  we  find  a  constancy  of  effort 
under  the  ordinary  circumstances  of  life,  and  physical  train- 
ing should  never  call  upon  the  total  efforts  of  the  individual, 
subsequently  to  diminish  them.  Numerous  appliances  for 
the  administrations  of  mechanotherapy  wrongly  apply  this 
law  of  decreasing  effort,  which  is  known  as  Schwann's  law. 
This  law,  formulated  by  Schwann  in  1837,  states  that  "  the 
absolute  effort  of  contraction  which  remains  available  in  a 
shortened  muscle  diminishes  in  proportion  as  the  contraction 
increases."  Let  us  note  that  Chauveau's  law  expresses  the 
same  fact  in  an  inverse,  but  completer  formula  :  "  The  force 
developed  by  a  muscle  increases  with  its  degree  of  contraction, 
or  shortening,  and  with  the  resistance  which  has  to  be  over- 
come." It  follows  that  muscular  force  regulates  itself  in 
accordance  with  the  resistance  encountered ;  it  does  not 
waste  itself  in  vain  ;  it  may  increase  to  large  proportions 
without  involving  a  shortening  of  the  muscles,  just  as  it  may 
do  so  by  means  of  this  shortening  alone.  Thus  it  makes  use 
of  isometric  and  isotonic  contractions1  only  to  exert  very  great 
force.  This  is  not  the  case  in  normal  activity,  and  such  are 
not  by  any  means  the  circumstances  adapted  to  the  physio- 
logical training  of  the  muscles.  Whatever  the  nature  of  the 
movement,  the  object  of  the  effort  made  will  be  to  overcome 
a  constant  resistance,  which  it  will  be  useful  to  increase  day 
by  day  if  it  is  desired  to  carry  out  a  process  of  training  ;  but 
to  vary  it  in  the  course  of  a  single  exercise,  and  to  subject 
the  tension  of  the  muscles  to  sudden  variations  and  absolute 
shocks,  which  wrench  the  fibres  and  lacerate  the  nervous 
filaments,  is  the  very  negation  of  any  scientific  method  of 
functional  education. 

If  we  abandon  the  idea  of  demanding  their  maximum  of 
effort  from  the  muscles,  a  course  which  would  risk  overtaxing 
them  and  cause  them  to  atrophy,  there  is  nothing  to  justify 
the  principle  of  variable  resistance,  or  even  of  decreasing 

1  Isometric,  without  shortening,  but  with  increased  tension;  isotonic,  with 
shortening  but  with  constant  tension  of  the  muscles. 


140          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

resistance.  Exercises  are  of  physiological  value,  and  are 
useful,  only  if  the  forces  called  into  play  are  sub-maximal 
and  continuous.  In  this  case  they  produce  their  full  effect 
upon  the  locomotive  system,  giving  suppleness  to  the  joints 
and  developing  the  power  of  the  muscles.  Just  as  they  cause, 
when  pushed  to  excess,  contracture  and  an  elastic  fatigue  of 
the  tendons,  so  their  harmonious  employment  provokes 
irritability  of  the  nervous,  muscular,  and  tendinous  fibres, 
stimulating  their  elasticity  and  increasing  their  strength, 
and  induces  an  increased  respiratory  and  circulatory  activity, 
which  profoundly  influences  the  phenomena  of  nutrition. 
From  this  results  what  is  known  as  functional  hypertrophy. 
We  see  the  mass  of  the  muscles  increase,  not  by  the  addition 
of  new  fibres,  but  by  the  increasing  diameter  of  the  old  ones, 
which  become  thickened,  storing  up  reserves  of  nitrogenous 
materials.1 

Physical  training  and  functional  re-education,  therefore, 
produce  a  total  effect,  a  massive  action,  on  definite  groups  of 
muscles.  They  perform  a  work  of  synthesis,  of  synergetic 
training. 

The  analysis  of  the  movements  is  necessary  in  quite  special 
and  temporary  instances  ;  but  eventually  we  find  ourselves 
thrown  back  upon  synergy,  as  it  is  demanded  by  nature,  in 
conformity  with  the  most  reliable  teaching  of  theory  and  prac- 
tice.2 

LXII.  Factors  of  Physical  Training. — The  State  of  the 
Organism — Alimentation — The  Seasons. — However,  physi- 
cal training  does  not  consist  merely  of  the  regulation  of  muscular 
action.  The  spirit  of  the  geometrician  is  not  sufficient. 
Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  condition  of  the  organs,  to  the 
power  of  the  heart  and  the  muscular  system,  to  the  elasticity 
of  the  respiratory  cycle,  and  to  the  age  of  the  subject.  The 
child  is  naturally  impelled  to  squander  his  energies  ;  education, 
while  allowing  this  activity  to  develope,  will  impose  upon  it 
the  necessary  discipline,  which  will  preserve  him  from  over- 

1  Morpurgo,  Arch.  ital.  Biol,  Vol.  XXIX.,  p.  65,  1898. 

1  Concerning  functional  and  manual  re-education,  see  the  present  writer's 
article  in  the  Journal  de  Physiologic,  pp.  821-871,  1915. 


THE    ART    OF   LABOUR  141 

exertion  and  bodily  malformation  ;  so  that  it  is  important 
that  we  should  possess  clear  and  sufficient  ideas  of  human 
physiology.  The  youth  is  exposed  rather  to  the  risk  of  over- 
taxing his  brain,  in  the  strenuous  endeavour  to  pass  examina- 
tions, to  obtain  degrees  or  other  qualifications,  which  will  fit 
him  for  his  chosen  career  and  reward  him  with  the  joys  of 
success.  He  should  be  induced  to  rest  from  activities  of 
this  nature  by  devoting  himself  to  moderate  physical  exercise, 
in  games  or  gymnastics,  which,  provided  all  excess  be  avoided, 
will  restore  the  balance  of  his  energies. 

Up  to  about  the  forty-fifth  year  games  or  sports,  pro- 
vided they  are  not  of  a  violent  nature,  constitute  a  potent 
factor  of  neuro-muscular  training,  and  increase  the  resistance 
of  the  organism.  As  one  advances  in  years  the  function  of 
the  muscles  surrenders  its  pre-eminence  to  the  function  of  the 
brain  ;  the  man  increases,  so  to  speak,  in  dignity  ;  he  is  more 
occupied  with  the  things  of  the  mind  ;  he  is  more  of  a  man. 
"  All  our  dignity  resides  in  thought,"  said  Pascal  with 
justice. 

Physical  education  would  miss  its  aim  if  it  disregarded  the 
human  understanding.  Whenever  it  prescribes  exercises 
calculated  to  refresh  the  brain-worker,  it  will  select  them  from 
among  the  simplest  and  the  most  automatic.  Otherwise  the 
man  would  be  burning  the  candle  at  both  ends.  To  the  old 
man,  whose  movements  have  lost  their  vigour  and  celerity, 
whose  cardio-vascular  organs  are  less  resistant  and  less  elastic, 
moderate  efforts  and  a  deliberate  pace  are  suited  ;  for  example, 
those  of  walking.  Entertainments  and  amusements,  provided 
they  do  not  evoke  violent  emotions,  are  for  him  reconstituents 
of  the  nerve-centres.  We  must  get  this  idea  well  fixed  in  our 
minds,  that  life  rapidly  increases  in  intensity ;  then  its  intensity 
remains  constant;  and  then,  during  a  long  final  period,  it 
diminishes  little  by  little.  The  curve  of  energy  terminates 
in  a  gentle  slope  (Fig.  51).  And  as  this  period  corresponds 
with  a  moderate  and  fastidious  function  of  nutrition,  so  must 
the  expenditure  of  active  energy  be  limited  to  the  strictly 
necessary  ;  otherwise  the  organism  will  be  in  no  condition 
to  make  up  for  any  extravagant  expenditure. 


142 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


We  see  how  far  physical  training  is  governed  by  the 
principles  of  physiology,  and  why  without  these  it  would  go 
astray.  They  are  its  raison  d'etre  ;  without  them  it  could  not 
have  been  devised.  From  all  antiquity  indeed,  it  has  been 
known  that  the  activity  of  the  muscles  maintained  the 
body  in  health,  and  games  were  born  of  this  utilitarian 
idea.  Cyrus,  king  of  the  Persians,  forbade  the  eating  of  a 
meal  before  the  body  was  fatigued  by  some  kind  of  exercise. 
Lycurgus  founded  baths  and  gymnasiums,  and,  effecting  a 
cruel  elimination  of  weakly  subjects,  became,  after  his  fashion, 


Curve   of    human     energy. 


j      .      I      .     Age    (years). 


10        20        30       40        50        60       70        80       90        100 
FIG.  51. — Energy  produced  during  the  Day  of  24  Hours  at  various  Periods  of  Life. 


the  ancestor  of  the  Eugenists.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  were 
wonderful  organisers  of  athletic  sports.  Hippocrates  and 
Galen  expatiated  on  the  subject  of  sports  and  games,  often 
exhibiting  a  sound  judgement.  Even  in  the  depths  of  Asia 
they  were  the  preoccupation  of  the  ruling  classes.  In  the  year 
23  B.C.  wrestling  was  regarded  as  a  most  noble  sport  in  the 
empire  of  the  Mikados.  From  gymnastics  the  next  step  was 
to  "  medicinal  gymnastics  "  or  hygiene. 

Hygiene,  therefore,  is  the  basis  of  physical  training. 
Hygiene  should  render  sports  and  games  wholesome  and 
enjoyable,  should  regulate  them,  and  determine  their  intensity 
and  their  duration,  and  should  adapt  them  to  the  age  and 
constitution  of  the  player. 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  143 

It  should  also  take  into  account  the  law  of  functional  hege- 
mony, by  virtue  of  which  the  maximum  of  life  repairs  to  the 
active  organs,  to  the  detriment  of  the  rest.  It  follows  that  the 
good  hygienist  will  forbid  the  performance  of  heavy  work 
immediately  after  a  meal,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  midst  of  the 
digestive  process  ;  nor  will  he  approve  of  the  performance  of 
intense  intellectual  labour  following  upon  a  condition  of 
muscular  fatigue. 

The  character  of  the  alimentation  absorbed,  as  we  have 
already  stated,  is  in  itself  a  factor  of  training  (see  §XL).  Between 
the  commencement  of  any  sort  of  work,  and  the  end  of  a  meal, 
an  interval  of  half  an  hour l  should  be  observed  when  the  diet 
is  rich  in  carbohydrates. 

LXIII.  Functional  Re-education.  General  Laws. — As  for 

the  infirmities,  differing  in  aspect  and  in  gravity,  which  usually 
affect  the  locomotive  organs,  they  are  the  province  of  functional 
re-education  properly  so  called. 

The  persons  whom  we  subject  to  the  process  of  functional 
re-education  are  passing  through  that  rather  ill-defined  phase 
which  precedes  complete  recovery  :  the  so-called  period  of 
consolidation.  During  this  phase  the  cellular  vitality  is  in 
full  swing ;  the  tissues  are  undergoing  regeneration,  and 
increasing  their  powers  of  resistance,  while  the  functions 
are  becoming  re-established.  However,  this  anatomical  and 
physiological  restoration  is  subject  to  the  effects,  from  the 
dynamical  point  of  view,  of  malformations,  adhesions,  displace- 
ments, ankylosed  joints,  and  atrophy  of  the  organs.  Vicious 
consolidations  are  not  rare,  often  originating  in  faulty  methods 
of  immobilising  fractured  limbs,  and  sometimes  to  the  exercises 
prescribed  by  an  irrational  mechanolherapy.  The  real  object 
of  functional  re-education  consists  in  re-establishing,  or  at 
least  in  improving,  the  motor  condition  of  the  man,  the  exercises 

1  A  mixed  or  albuminous  diet  necessitates  an  interval  of  twice  or  three  times 
this  length.  Thus  starchy  foods  and  saccharine  foods  favour  protracted  exertion ; 
they  assure  the  energy  of  the  system  of  an  economy  of  about  5  per  cent.,  and 
•constitute  a  safeguard  against  organic  disturbances.  The  values  of  exercise 
f  nd  of  rations  depend  very  considerably  on  the  season.  The  reader  will  remember 
that  we  have  already  dealt  with  this  point  (Climate,  §  XLVII). 


144         THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

being  regulated  by  the  form  of  his  movements,  and  the  average 
power  of  the  muscles  which  produce  them  ;  lastly,  in  stimulat- 
ing the  tissue-repairing  processes. 

Natural  movements  may  be  referred  to  three  types  : 

Movements  of  translation,  in  which  the  member  is  displaced 
without  rotation,  remaining  parallel  to  itself.  Such  move- 
ments are  produced  when  the  member  is  actuating  a  jointing- 
or  smoothing-plane,  a  saw,  or  a  file,  and  in  various  gymnastic 
exercises  : 

Movements  of  rotation,  in  which  certain  points  remain  fixed, 
constituting  the  horizontal  or  vertical  axis  upon  which  the 
rotation  is  effected.  This  rotation  is  generally  partial,  limited 
by  the  play  of  a  hinge,  like  the  movement  of  a  gate  swinging 
on  its  pivots  ;  it  may  also  be  a  simple  oscillation  : 

Helicoidal  or  screwing  movements  combine  the  two  foregoing 
movements;  they  combine  translation  with  rotation.  Such 
are  produced  when  the  hand  is  working  a  screw-driver,  or 
when  the  whole  upper  limb  is  turning  a  large  key.  It  is  worthy 
of  remark  that  the  screwing  movements  developing  from  left 
to  right  are  more  frequent  than  the  reverse  movements. 
Hence  the  origin  of  right-handed  screws,  corkscrews,  etc 
This  must  be  connected  with  the  fact  that  right-handed 
persons  are  in  the  majority,  and  that  the  right-handed 
screwing  movement  is  an  economical  movement  for  the 
right  arm,  as  is  the  left-handed  screwing  movement  for 
the  left  arm. 

All  forms  of  movement  are  referable  to  the  three  preceding 
types  ;  it  is  enough  to  reproduce  these  latter  in  the  planes  in 
which  they  normally  occur,  with  the  force  and  amplitude  which 
characterise  them  in  the  healthy  subject,  in  order  to  be  sure 
that  we  are  giving  the  muscular  system  Chat  real  physiological 
training  outside  which  there  would  be  nothing  but  danger  and 
empiricism.  Whether  in  the  case  of  wholly  normal  persons, 
or  in  that  of  the  infirm,  this  training  will  always  be  graduated 
as  regards  effort,  speed,  and  total  duration.  It  will  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  produces  a 
movement  which  is  necessarily  alternating  and  oscillatory, 
in  place  of  a  continuous  rotation,  and  which  allows  time  for 


THE    ART    OF   LABOUR  145 

the  accomplishment  of  the  process  of  intra-cellular  repair. 
The  life  of  movement  therefore  assumes  the  aspect  of  a  periodi- 
cal series  of  actions  and  intervals  of  repose. 

LXIV.  Force  and  Amplitude. — The  force  and  amplitude  of 
the  movements  of  the  limbs  must  therefore  be  determined 
in  the  case  of  the  person  to  be  re-educated,  and  compared  with 
those  of  the  normal  subject.  In  practice  we  compare  the 
wounded  limb  with  the  whole  limb.  I  may  add  that  the  same 
remarks  apply  to  the  various  segments  of  the  limbs,  and  to  the 
stumps  of  amputated  limbs. 

But  it  may  happen  that  a  joint  has  grown  stiff.  Then  the 
nearest  joint — in  the  case  of  the  knee-joint,  for  example,  the 
hip-joint — takes  its  place.  The  conditions  of  movement,  of 
walking,  are  changed,  and  favour  a  fresh  mode  of  muscular 
synergy.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  seek  mechanical 
appliances  which  may  prevent  the  atrophy  of  the  quadriceps, 
and  impose  small  movements  on  the  ankylosed  bones,  so  long 
as  their  fibrous  and  tendinous  covering  retains  a  certain 
amount  of  elasticity,  or  provided  that  radiography  has  not 
revealed  an  irremediable  osseous  adhesion. 

All  the  movements  of  locomotion  will  be  treated  in  this  way, 
with  the  alternative  objects  of  re-establishing  the  normal 
function  in  the  atiophied  limb,  or  of  contending,  by  means  of 
re-education,  against  a  more  or  less  complicated  infirmity,  in 
order  that  mere  stiffness  may  not  develop  into  ankylosisr 
while  atrophy  is  at  least  kept  in  check.  Only  definite  cases  of 
ankylosis  or  atrophy  will  obtain  compensation  from  the 
articular  or  muscular  substitution  of  the  adjacent  segment  of  the 
limb,  stimulated  by  actual  training  exercises.  It  is  only  during 
this  process  of  reinforcement  that  a  rational  and  economical 
substitution  may  be  established,  guided  by  the  instinct  of 
the  least  effort  or  the  minimum  of  constraint.  The  adhesions 
to  which  the  wound  has  given  rise  gradually  relax,  allowing 
the  movements  of  the  articular  surfaces  a  greater  amplitude  ; 
the  elasticity  of  the  ligaments  increases,  and  the  bones  become 
polished  by  renewed  friction,  destroying  the  asperities  which 
remain  after  the  consolidation  of  the  fractures. 


146         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

It  will  not  be  forgotten  that  the  contraction  of  a  muscle 
may  modify  the  contraction  of  muscles  at  some  distance ; 
for  example,  the  strength  of  the  flexor  muscles  of  the 
fingers  is  diminished  if  the  articulation  of  the  wrist  is  the  seat 
of  a  rigidity  which  keeps  it  flexed,  or  of  a  nervous  degeneration 
which  relaxes  the  extensors. 

No  attempt  must  ever  be  made  to  re-educate  an  articulation 
still  capable  of  suppurating,  or  a  limb  painful  to  the  touch  or 
imperfectly  consolidated,  and  the  process  of  physical  training 
must  never  be  carried  out  hastily. 

There  is  no  method  of  classifying  those  cases  which  can 
profit  by  functional  re-education  ;  there  can  be  none,  for  the 
diversity  of  the  wounds  received — in  respect  of  their  gravity, 
their  localisation,  and  the  age  of  the  wounded  man — is  incal- 
culable. What  we  can  classify  are  the  movements  which  have 
been  compromised  by  the  wound,  and  their  importance  in  the 
locomotive  cycle,  in  the  active  life  of  the  persons  treated.  A 
special  class  will  be  that  of  those  who  have  suffered  amputation, 
in  whom  we  shall  develop  the  strength  of  the  muscles  of  the 
stump  and  the  mobility  of  the  principal  articulation.  This 
preoccupation  is  justified  by  the  necessities  arising  from  the 
wearing  of  a  prothetic  appliance,  on  the  arm  or  leg,  which  is 
often  too  heavy  for  the  stump.  We  shall  take  the  oppor- 
tunity of  returning  to  this  subject  when  dealing  with  the 
work  of  war-cripples  and  prothesis. 

LXV.— II.  The  Technique  of  Physical  Training  and 
Re-education. — Physical  training,  and  re-education  of  a 
functional  character,  in  order  to  succeed  in  the  directions  which 
we  have  just  defined,  will  have  little  need  to  borrow  from  the 
often  disastrous  technical  methods  of  mechanotherapy  and 
physical  culture.  It  must  substitute  a  rational  method  for  the 
empiricism  of  the  old  methods. 

As  we  explained,  it  is  necessary  to  train  the  activities  of  the 
upper  and  lower  limbs  in  a  gradual  manner,  avoiding  any 
overtaxing  of  the  nerves  or  muscles.  The  organism  will 
reveal  the  effects  of  this  gradual  training  by  a  synergy  of 
effort.  This  result  will  be  obtained  by  means  of  the  ergo- 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR 


147 


metric  cycle  and  the  cheirograph,  of  which  we  have  already  made 
mention,  and  the  dynamographic  bulb.  It  will  be  verified  by 
means  of  the  arthrodynamometer.  We  will  describe  the  details 
and  the  use  of  these  instruments. 

(1).  The  Ergometric  Cycle. — The  ergometric  cycle  consists  of 
a  flywheel  W,  weighing  about  36  kilogrammes,  which  forms  the 
hind  wheel  of  a  bicycle,  of  which  only  the  frame  and  the  pedals 
have  been  retained  ;  the  whole  is  adapted  for  men  of  medium 
stature,  but  the  height  of  the  saddle  may  be  adjusted  if  need 
be.  The  rim  of  the  wheel  is  grooved,  and  in  the  groove  lies  a 


Desprez 


FIG.  52. — Diagram  of  ergometric  Cycle. 


ribbon  of  steel,  R,  which  forms  the  brake  ;  one  end  of  it  supports 
a  plate  P,  on  which  weights  may  be  placed,  while  the  other  end 
is  attached  to  a  traction  dynamometer,  D,  provided  with  a 
dial,  which  may  be  made  self-registering  (Fig.  52). 

When  the  rider  works  the  pedals  the  ribbon  causes  an  amount 
of  friction,  F,  which  corresponds  with  the  pull  marked  on  the 
dial.  The  virtual  distance  covered  by  the  flywheel  is  multi- 
plied by  the  force  required  to  overcome  this  friction,  F,  which 
gives  the  amount  of  work  performed  by  the  legs.  Each 
revolution  of  the  pedals  corresponds  to  a  peripheral  distance 
of  6  metres,  or  to  three  turns  of  the  flywheel,  the  latter  having  a 
circumference  of  about  2  metres.  Under  these  conditions  the 


148          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

bust  is  completely  at  rest,  so  that  the  legs  alone  are  working 
against  a  resistance  which  can  be  adjusted  at  will  by  altering 
the  load  on  the  brake,  and  at  a  pace  which  the  subject  will 
choose  to  please  himself  ;  the  mass  of  the  flywheel  will  prevent 
sudden  variations  of  speed. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  crank- wheel  C  transmits  its  movement 
to  a  similar  wheel  which  is  fitted  with  a  crank-handle,  H,  so 
that  by  actuating  this  latter  the  arms  will  perform  work, 
which  may  be  measured  as  before.  The  highest  position  of 
this  handle  extends  the  arm  in  a  horizontal  plane  in  the  case  of 
a  subject  of  average  stature.  The  subject  may  seat  himself 
before  the  crank,  on  an  adjustable  stool,  at  a  convenient 
height ;  if  he  stands  the  movement  of  the  arm  will  bring  into 
play  the  articulations  of  the  wrist,  the  elbow,  and  the  shoulder, 
just  as  the  movements  of  the  rider  utilised  the  articulation 
of  the  hip,  the  knee,  and  the  ankle. 

Moreover,  by  moving  sufficiently  out  of  the  vertical  plane 
of  the  crank,  he  will  make  a  greater  demand  upon  the  muscles 
of  the  shoulder  and  a  portion  of  the  trunk,  while  the  effort 
of  the  elbow  will  be  reduced,  and  vice  versa. 

In  this  comparatively  brief  explanation  I  cannot  discuss 
the  conditions  of  the  gradual  advance  of  the  process  of  physio- 
logical training,  as  effected  by  means  of  the  ergometric  cycle. 
I  will  content  myself  with  remarking  that  for  adults  the  follow- 
ing brake  loads  will  be  employed,  in  increasing  order  :  300, 
500,  700,  1,000,  1,200,  1,500,  2,000,  2,500  and  3,000  grammes. 

Having  noted  by  means  of  the  chronometer  the  pace 
voluntarily  adopted  by  the  patient,  this  will  be  increased  at 
the  rate  of  10  revolutions  of  the  flywheel  per  minute  every 
second  day,  the  exercise  lasting  from  10  to  15  minutes.  The 
pace  will  be  set  by  a  metronome,  marking  from  30  to  300 
oscillations. 

We  may  regard  as  satisfactory  an  activity  which  works 
against  a  brake-  load  of  3  kilogrammes  at  a  pace  of  200  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  without  a  halt. 

At  this  stage  it  will  be  as  well  to  estimate  the  expenditure 
of  energy  and  note  the  degree  of  fatigue,  in  conformity  with 
the  indications  already  given. 


THE    ART    OF   LABOUR 


149 


LXVI. — -The  experimental  equipment  is  completed,  in 
the  case  of  patients  who  have  suffered  amputation,  by  a  metallic 
splint  which  is  screwed  into  the  place  of  the  crank-handle, 
and  which  fulfils  the  same  office,  with  the  advantage  that  the 


FIG.  53. — Re-education  of  Stumps. 


-stump  can  be  strapped  into  it  by  means  of  straps  surrounding 
the  splint.  This  latter  moves  before  a  quadrant,  Q,  gradu- 
ated from  0°  to  180°  on  either  side  of  the  vertical ;  it  carries 
an  indicating  needle,  which  shows  the  amplitude  of  the  articular 


150          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

movements,  in  adduction  and  abduction.  In  order  that  the 
centre  of  the  articulation  of  the  shoulder  shall  lie  precisely 
on  the  axis  of  the  brachial  splint,  the  patient  is  seated  on  the 
adjustable  stool,  whose  height  is  regulated  according  to  his 
stature  (Fig.  53).  The  muscles  of  the  stump  maintain  its 
oscillation,  and  one  might  assist  it,  at  the  outset,  by  gently 
working  the  fly-wheel.  A  patient  whose  arm  has  been  ampu- 
tated, for  example,  will  guide  the  movements  of  the  stump  by 
working  the  pedals.  The  rhythm  of  the  oscillations  and  the 
resistance  of  the  brake  will  be  moderate  ;  they  will  depend 
upon  the  useful  length  and  the  actual  strength  of  the  stump, 
which  will  obviously  be  greater  when  the  fore-arm  only  has 
been  amputated. 

In  patients  who  have  suffered  amputation  of  part  of  the 
lower  leg,  the  knee-joint  being  preserved,  an  experimental 
prothetic  appliance  enables  them  to  exercise  the  stump  ; 
the  sound  leg  will  sustain  the  effort  strictly  necessary  to 
re-educate  it  and  call  forth  its  activity  in  the  most  uniform 
manner.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  lower  limb  is  best 
re-educated  by  the  use  of  a  simple  wooden  leg,  or  by  the 
employment  of  a  splint. 

In  these  various  cases  we  must  supervise  not  only  the 
gradation  of  the  exercises  performed,  but  also  their  continuity, 
advancing  to  the  limits  of  physiological  training. 

Finally,  on  the  rim  of  the  fly-wheel  is  affixed  an  elastic 
strip  of  metal,  m,  which,  as  it  passes  the  fork,  comes  into- 
contact  with  a  similar  strip.  The  result  is  a  ticking  sound, 
and  the  patient  is  required  to  make  this  coincide  with  the 
ticking  of  the  metronome.  The  time  required  to  obtain  this 
coincidence  will  be  measured  by  the  chronometer  ;  this  will 
form  a  practical  means  of  measuring  the  personal  equation. 
When  this  period  does  not  exceed  15  seconds  the  subject  is. 
quick  ;  his  personal  equation  is  small,  and  he  is  adapted  to  call- 
ings demanding  rapid  movements.  If  it  is  longer  than  25  seconds 
he  is  a  slow  subject.  A  classification  of  subjects  made  in  this  man- 
ner will  constitute  a  guide  to  the  manual  re-education  of  wounded 
men,  and  their  re-establishment  in  the  industrial  system. 

The  fork  of  the  cycle  is  fitted  with  two  terminals,  T,  con- 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  151 

nected  with  a  battery,  in  whose  circuit  is  a  self-registering 
Desprez  signal.  At  each  revolution  of  the  wheel  the  circuit 
is  closed,  and  a  notch  is  marked  on  the  record-paper  ;  and 
if  the  patient's  progress  is  normal  all  these  notches  will  be 
made  at  equal  intervals.  Otherwise  we  must  suspect  either 
a  lack  of  co-ordination  in  his  movements,  or  a  slight  tendinous 
rigidity,  or  muscular  retraction,  with  secondary  lesions.  The 
cycle,  with  its  accessories,  constitutes  the  principal  appliance 
employed  for  the  purposes  of  physical  education. 

LXVII. — (2).  The  Cheirograph, — I  give  this  name  to  a  type 
of  ergograph  designed  for  the  hand,  with  its  whole  gamut  of 
movements,  including  those  of  the  wrist  as  well  as  those  of  the 
fingers.  Mosso's  digital  ergograph,  of  which  this  is  a  transforma- 
tion and  an  improvement,  serves  merely  to  register  the  flexions 
of  the  right  middle  finger.  Its  usefulness  is  therefore  extremely 
limited;  moreover,  it  possesses  several  disadvantages,  which  we 
have  already  described  (in  Le  Moteur  Humain,  p.  391).  The 
cheirograph,  on  the  contrary,  possesses  an  excellent  means  of 
attachment  to  the  fore-arm,  which  leaves  the  entire  hand  free, 
including  the  wrist,  permitting  of  flexor,  extensor,  and  abductor 
movements,  and  also  of  lateral  inclinations.  The  registering 
apparatus  consists  of  the  ordinary  form  of  Mosso's  carriage, 
constructed  to  work  with  the  minimum  of  friction  (see 
Fig.  40). 

Thanks  to  this  apparatus,  the  hand,  that  delicate  segment 
of  the  upper  limb,  so  well  adapted  to  movements  involving 
skill  and  celerity,  may  be  subjected  to  a  functional  education, 
for  whose  results,  as  we  have  assured  ourselves,  we  have  not 
very  long  to  wait. 

The  appliance  by  means  of  which  the  cheirograph  is  affixed 
to  the  fore-arm  is  mounted  on  a  heavy  frame.  It  may  be 
inclined  to  the  right  or  the  left,  in  order  to  support  the  right 
or  the  left  fore-arm.  To  this  end  it  is  provided  with  a  pivot 
and  a  clamping  nut  at  one  side  (Cl,  Fig.  54).  The  fore-arm 
is  firmly  held  and  supported  by  the  semi-bracelets,  b,  b', 
which  are  suitably  adjusted.  The  hand  then  rests  upon  a 
fixed  slab  S,  on  which  the  fingers  are  fully  extended. 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  153 

Above  this  is  a  semi-circular  bar  carrying  four  rods,  ter- 
minating in  the  small  metal  thimbles,  /,  t;  their  position  can 
TDC  adjusted  by  means  of  clamping-screws  with  milled  heads. 
Brought  down  upon  the  slab  S  these  thimbles  cover  the 
phalanges  and  hold  the  fingers  immovable.  It  is  then  possible 
to  liberate  this  or  that  finger  at  will,  and  to  perform  work 
with  it,  the  rest  remaining  motionless. 

Moreover,  the  hand  is  pressed  against  the  slab  S  by  means 
of  a  clamp  C,  which  presses  upon  the  middle  of  the  metacarpus. 
Lastly,  at  one  side  is  a  pulley  device  P,  which  transmits  to 
the  registering  apparatus  the  movements  of  the  thumb. 
The  transmission  is  effected  by  means  of  a  cord  attached  to 
a  small  leather  ring  clasping  the  second  phalange,  the  other 
^nd  of  which  is  connected  with  the  registering  apparatus. 

The  slab  and  the  set  of  thimbles,  and  also  the  pulley,  can 
be  swung  aside,  leaving  an  empty  space  in  which  the  hand  and 
the  wrist  can  perform  their  movements  of  flexion,  extension, 
and  lateral  deviation.  In  this  case  the  cord  is  attached  to  a 
clamp  similar  to  C,  in  which  the  hand  is  placed  and  then  closed, 
the  wrist  of  course  remaining  perfectly  free. 

All  the  movements  possible  are  eventually  converted  into 
traction  on  a  thread,  which,  at  one  end  of  the  Mosso  carriage, 
supports  a  weight  which  can  be  varied  at  the  will  of  the  opera- 
tor. Registration  is  therefore  always  in  the  same  direction, 
but  the  amplitude  of  the  tracings  varies.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  initial  position  is  adjusted  by  means  of  the  screw,  as 
if  the  cord  were  allowed  any  play  the  different  tracings  could 
not  usefully  be  compared. 

If  these  precautions  are  taken,  and  if  the  weights  to  be  lifted 
are  suitable — from  200  to  1,500  grammes  for  the  fingers,  the 
voluntary  rhythm  observed  by  the  patient  being  noted, 
and  then  increased  to  60  contractions  per  minute — it  will 
quickly  be  realised  how  salutary  these  exercises  are.  They 
should  be  continued  from  3  to  10  minutes. 

On  the  tracings  thus  obtained  we  can  follow  the  increasing 
amplitude  of  the  curves,  which  will  record  the  degree  of  flexion 
and  the  mobility  of  the  articulations.  Records  obtained 
with  the  same  weight  at  regular  intervals  will  give  a  faithful 


154 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


account  of  the  functional  condition  of  the  hand,  and  will 
permit  of  later  comparison.  Those  forms  of  exertion  which 
involve  celerity  of  movement  (as  typewriting,  stenography, 
fencing)  are  those  which  are  particularly  benefited  by  this 
method  of  training,  which  is  also  of  great  value  in  cases 
of  articular  rigidity. 


FIG.  55. — Bulb  Dynamometer. 

LXVIII.— (3).  The  Dynamographic  Bulb.— With  a  view  to 
continuing  the  training  of  the  hand  in  respect  of  its  total 
effort  of  compression  or  squeezing,  we  have  employed  a  very 
simple  piece  of  special  apparatus  :  the  dynamographic  bulb, 
or  bulb  dynamometer. 

This  consists  of  a  strongly-made  pear-shaped  bulb  of  india- 
rubber  having  a  capacity  of  125  cubic  centimetres.  This  is 
filled  with  air  at  any  desired  pressure  by  means  of  a  cycle 
pump.  It  is  connected  with  a  mercury  manometer,  one  of 
whose  arms  is  capacious  enough  to  contain  at  least  500  cubic 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  155 

centimetres   of  mercury,   while  the   other  branch,    which  is 
longer,    contains    about    30    cubic    centimetres.     This   latter 


FIG.  56. 


contains  a  registering  float,  so  that  all  displacements  of  the 
mercury  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  fingers,  above  the 
known  pressure  of  the  air  in  the  bulb,  are  recorded  on  a  register- 


156          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

ing  cylinder  (Fig.  55).  The  oscillations  of  the  mercury  are 
damped  by  a  constriction  in  the  tube  connecting  the  two 
arms. 

The  difference  of  level  in  the  two  arms  measures  the  total 
pressure.  We  have  marked,  on  a  graduated  vertical  stem, 
the  values  in  grammes  per  millimetre  of  displacement  (differ- 
ence of  level). 

The  compression  of  the  fingers  causes  a  variation  of  the 
initial  pressure,  and  the  variations  furnish  a  tracing  which  is 
graduated  once  for  all.  The  muscles  may  be  trained  until 
from  exerting  a  pressure  of  100  grammes  they  exert  one  of 
5  kilogrammes,  which  is  a  very  high  figure.  A  hundred  con- 
tractions cause  the  hand  to  perspire,  while  massaging  the 
entire  fibro-muscular  system.  It  is  possible  to  follow  the 
advance  of  functional  fatigue  as  the  hand  continues  its  exertions 
and  also  the  rhythm  of  the  movements  (Fig.  56). 

LXIX. — (4).  The  Arthrodynamometer. — As  the  process  of 
training  advances,  the  strength  of  the  muscles  and  the  ampli- 
tude of  their  movement  increases.  These  two  factors,  which 
yield  an  exact  measure  of  the  results,  are  determined  by  means 
of  the  arthrodynamometer. 

This  instrument  measures  the  angular  displacements  of  the 
limbs  or  segments  of  limbs,  and  the  absolute  forces  exerted  by 
the  groups  of  muscles  which  control  them,  whatever  degree  of 
flexion  may  be  in  question.1 

It  consists  (Fig.  57)  of  two  parallel  strips  of  steel  jointed 
like  a  pair  of  compasses,  and  turning  easily  upon  this  joint. 
It  measures  all  practically  useful  degrees  of  flexion,  that  is, 
from  30°  to  180°.  The  method  of  using  the  instrument  will, 
as  we  shall  see,  explain  its  instruction  and  adjustment. 

Measurement  of  the  Angular  Movements  of  the  Limbs. — The 
arthrodynamometer  is  applied  to  two  segments  of  the  limb, 
on  either  side  of  the  articulation,  and  in  a  determined  plane, 
It  is  provided  with  semi-bracelets  and  armlets  of  thin  steel, 
to  which  very  strong  straps  are  affixed.  These  are  tightly 
fastened,  in  order  that  the  legs  of  the  instrument  may  be 

1  See  C.R.  Acad.  Sc.,  1  June,  1915,  Vol.  CLX.,  p.  730. 


THE    ART    OF   LABOUR 


157 


firmly  attached  to  the  segments  of  the  limb,  and  incapable  of 
slipping  (Fig.  58). 


FIG.  57. — Elevation  of  Arthrodynamometer. 

In  order  to  make  an  angular  measurement,  the  central 
nut  N  of  the  pivotal 
joint  is  unscrewed, 
and  the  pawl  P,  of 
which  the  tip  engages 
in  the  toothed  wheel 
T,  is  raised.  Then  the 
adjusting  screw  A, 
which  is  seen  above 
the  leaves  of  the  spring 
SP,  is  turned  until  it 
is  brought  into  contact 
with  the  swivel  S. 
If  the  wearer  now 
flexes  one  segment  of 
a  limb  upon  the  ad- 
jacent segment  (the 
foot  upon  the  lower 
leg,  the  hand  upon 
the  fore-arm),  the  leg 
L  of  the  compasses 
actuates  a  pulley  ly- 
ing beneath  the  dial  FlG-  58- 

D,       thereby      Causing  Manner  of  adjusting  the  Arthrodynamometer. 

the  small  pointer  to  rotate,  when  the  angle  of  flexion  may  be 


158          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

read  on  one  of  the  circumferential  scales  of  the  dial.  In  the 
same  way  the  lateral  movements  of  the  hand  and  foot  may  be 
measured. 

For  Movements  of  the  Entire  Limb,  whether  in  a  frontal  or 
sagittal  plane,  the  instrument  is  adjusted  by  clamping  the  nut 
N  and  immobilising  the  joint.  The  angle  of  displacement  is 
then  given  by  the  position  assumed  by  the  swinging  pointer 
or  plumb  needle  PL,  a  pointer  with  a  counterweight  which 
plays  the  part  of  a  plumb-line.  It  indicates  the  deviation  of 
the  limb  from  the  vertical  in  either  direction. 

The  amplitude  of  the  movements  in  any  given  plane  is  thus 
correctly  determined.  It  is  compared  with  that  required  in 
athletic  exercises  or  games,  or  in  the  management  of  machinery 
or  the  handling  of  tools. 

Measuring  the  absolute  strength  of  the  muscles. — As  for  the 
force  exerted  by  the  muscles,  we  may  determine  its  absolute 
or  maximum  value  at  any  degree  of  flexion.  In  this  case  the 
nut  N  is  loosened,  and  the  pawl  P  lowered  upon  the  toothed 
wheel,  while  the  .  adjusting  screw  A  is  turned  until  it 
touches  the  leaves  of  the  spring.  This  firmly  engages  the  pawl 
in  the  interval  between  two  teeth,  and  suppresses  all  play 
when  the  muscular  effort  is  made. 

The  effort  exerted  upon  the  leg  of  the  compasses  is  there- 
fore transmitted  to  the  toothed  wheel,  and  thence  to  the 
leaves  of  the  spring,  against  which  the  adjusting  screw  A 
is  pressed.  The  deformation  of  this  spring,  though  barely 
perceptible,  is  amplified  by  the  bent  lever  or  crank  C,  which 
terminates  in  a  segmental  rack,  which  actuates  a  pinion  whose 
axle  carries  the  dynamometrical  pointer  moving  upon  the 
dial,  D',  on  which  the  values  are  read. 

Graduation  of  the  Dials. — On  the  dial  showing  the  angles  of 
flexion  the  degrees  are  marked  from  180°  to  30° ;  on  that 
showing  the  displacements  of  the  entire  limb  they  run  from 
0°  to  360° ;  but  it  is  as  well  to  define  the  direction  of  the 
angular  deviation  by  the  words  lateral  (to  right  or  left)  or 
sagittal  (to  front  or  back)  in  order  to  avoid  misunderstanding. 
More  detailed  explanations  are  necessary  in  respect  of  the 
measurement  of  absolute  force.  The  muscles,  acting  upon 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  159 

the  mobile  segment  of  the  limb,  while  the  spring  opposes  its 
flexion,  actuate  one  arm  of  a  lever  with  a  variable  moment.1 
The  force  exerted  by  them,  even  if  it  were  constant,  would 
produce  an  effect  upon  the  dynamometer  which  would  increase 
in  proportion  as  the  movement  itself  increased  with  reference 
to  the  axis,  as  it  does,  in  proportion  to  the  flexion,  and  up 
to  a  certain  limit.  Now  the  absolute  effort  of  the  muscles  is 
not  constant ;  it  tends  to  exhaust  itself  during  the  shortening 
of  the  muscle  (Schwann's  law).  It  is  therefore  difficult  to 
determine  it  exactly,  in  the  living  subject,  at  every  stage  of 
this  contraction. 

For  this  reason  we  have  adopted  a  conventional  graduation  ; 
the  force  is  supposed  to  act  normally  at  the  extremity  of  the 
leg  of  the  compasses,  in  the  centre  of  the  attachment,  at  a 
distance  of  8  centimetres  (3-2  inches)  from  the  centre  of  the 
hinge.  The  length  of  this  arm  of  the  lever  being  known 
once  for  all,  we  have  contented  ourselves  with  reading  the 
efforts  in  kilogrammes  on  the  small  dial,  in  place  of  the  kilo- 
gramme-centimetres which  express  the  movements.  If  the 
exact  position  of  the  muscular  insertion  on  the  movable 
bone  be  known,  it  will  be  possible  to  deduce  the  effective 
component  of  the  effort,  and  to  calculate  the  actual  power  of 
the  muscles  concerned. 

This  method  of  measurement  enables  us  to  follow  the 
variation  of  the  forces  exerted  during  the  movement,  and  to 
appreciate  the  results  of  the  training  process.  It  is  essential 
whenever  it  is  desired  to  undertake  the  scientific  organisation 
of  the  work  of  re-education,  whether  functional  or  professional. 

(5).  Lastly,  in  order  to  restore  the  movements  of  rotation 
in  the  arm,  I  make  use  of  an  apparatus  based  on  the  principle 
of  the  cam,  called  a  gyrograph,  which  applies  both  force  and 
movement,  and  measures  them. 

LXX. — III.  Applications. — Attitudes  of  the  Body. — Physical 
education,  conducted  according  to  the  technical  principles 
explained  above,  will  produce  rapid  and  lasting  results  ;  it 

1  The  moment  is  the  product  of  a  force  and  the  arm  of  the  lever  to  which  it  is 
applied. 


160         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

will  easily  lead  the  subject  to  the  verge  of  the  most  active 
athletic  exercises,  for  once  the  organic  functions  have  been 
subjected  to  supervision  and  training  there  will  no  longer  be 
any  possibility  of  exhaustion  or  failure  (see  the  whole  of  the 
chapter  on  Fatigue). 

But  functional  re-education,  which  is  applied  more  particu- 
larly to  wounded  soldiers,  must  be  kept  within  moderate 
limits,  progressing  at  a  very  gradual  rate,  under  penalty  of 
accidents. 

Both  physical  education  and  functional  re-education, 
in  short,  are  based  upon  the  fact  that  human  activity  should 
be  physiologically  regulated,  and  that  it  becomes,  by  that  very 
fact,  economical  and  hygienic. 

Attitudes. — We  may  remark  that  even  when  lying  down, 
or  sitting,  or  standing,  we  do  not  all  go  about  the  business  in 
the  same  fashion,  as  we  are  ignorant  of  the  economical  and 
hygienic  attitudes.  Measurements  of  the  energy  expended 
have  plainly  proved  as  much. 

Complete  repose  of  the  body  is  obtained  in  the  recumbent 
position,  but  by  lying  on  the  belly,  not  on  the  back,1  prefer- 
ably inclining  to  the  right  side  ;  the  saving  is  7  to  8  per  cent, 
over  the  seated  position.  In  the  latter  the  body  should  be 
upright  and  symmetrical,  the  feet  touching  the  ground  with- 
out effort ;  above  all  they  should  not  hang  clear  of  the  ground. 

In  sitting  down  to  read  or  write  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  fore-arms  rest  on  the  table,  and  that  the  shoulders  are 
drawn  back  ;  if  the  desk  is  too  high  it  will  involve  an  awkward 
and  very  fatiguing  attitude,  which  will  impede  the  movements 
of  the  hand  in  writing,  while  too  low  a  desk  necessitates  stoop- 
ing. 

The  erect  position  is  still  more  interesting  ;  it  concerns  the 
working-man  and  the  engineer  alike  ;  it  is  of  particular  import- 
ance to  the  overseer  ;  it  is  the  attitude  of  the  soldier,  the  watch- 
man, the  policeman,  the  omnibus  conductor,  the  railway- 
guard.  It  comprises  two  symmetrical  attitudes  and  one 
asymmetrical  pose,  which  are  plainly  shown  in  Fig.  59  (left 
to  right). 

1  Liljstrand  and  Wollin,  Skand.  Arch.  /.  Phys.t  Vol.  XXX.,  p.  199,  1913. 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR 


161 


The  normal  attitude  (the  Normal- Stellung  of  the  Germans) 
is  regular  ;  it  places  all  the  articulations  in  a  single  vertical 
plane  ;  but  it  is  a  source  of  fatigue.  The  convenient  attitude 
(Bequeme-Haltung)  is  more  stable,  and  contracts  the  muscles 
less.  However,  it  does  not  reduce  the  expenditure  of  bodily 
energy  to  the  minimum,  as  does  the  easy  attitude,  of  which 


Fig.  59. — Erect  Positions  of  the  Body. 


we  all  have  an  instinctive  experience.  Deportment  calls  for 
a  convenient,  symmetrical  attitude,  which  eases  the  vertebral 
column,  slightly  hollows  the  loins,  and  expands  the  chest, 
retracting  the  abdomen  and  the  shoulders.  This  undeniable 
condition  of  muscular  tension  causes  some  fatigue,  but  it  has 
a  very  favourable  influence  over  the  whole  economy  ;  it  con- 
serves the  energies  and  maintains  the  stature. 


162          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

Let  us  compare  the  cost  of  these  various  attitudes,  counting 
the  energy-expenditure  of  the  recumbent  man  as  100.     We 
shall  obtain  the  following  figures  :  1 

Recumbent  position  (in  pronation)         . .          . .      100 

Seated  position     . .         . .         . .         . .         . .     107 

Easy  pose    . .          . .          . .          . .      110 

Standing       Convenient  pose     ..          ..          ..      113 

Normal  pose  . .          . .          . .      132 

LXXI.  Locomotion. — Gymnastics. — Locomotion,  too,  is 
capable  of  improvement.  We  have  already  indicated  the 
economical  factors  of  a  walking  gait.  It  must  be  added 
that  above  170  steps  to  the  minute  it  is  more  profitable  to  run  ; 
which,  for  that  matter,  all  those  do  whose  lower  limbs  are  short. 
Very  frequent  short  steps  cause  the  prompt  appearance  of 
fatigue ;  I  will  venture,  in  this  connection,  to  utter  a  legitimate 
criticism  of  narrow  skirts  for  women.  The  subject  is  a  less 
serious  one  than  that  of  corsets,  but  none  the  less  hygiene 
deserves  a  certain  consideration  ;  and  it  is  by  no  means  the 
enemy  of  fashion. 

Certain  populations,  such  as  the  Arabs,  effect  a  saving  of 
20  to  25  per  cent,  in  their  locomotion,  and  in  the  use  of  their 
legs  in  general.  Their  output  is  thus  greatly  superior  to  the 
average.  Now  these  folk  practise  the  so-called  flexed  walk 
(of  which  I  have  said  what  is  necessary  elsewhere),  which  aids 
progress  and  reduces  the  efforts  of  muscular  contraction. 
This  is,  for  that  matter,  the  gait  of  the  weary  labourer,  the 
navvy  returning  from  his  work,  or  the  human  beast  of  burden 
harnessed  to  a  heavy  hand-cart  (Fig.  60) ;  it  diminishes 
the  oscillations  of  the  bodily  centre  of  gravity,  and  increases 
a  man's  steadiness  on  his  legs.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances the  trainer  will  combine  walking  and  running  exercise 
in  order  to  increase  the  rhythm  of  the  heart  and  lungs  to  a 
fitting  extent ;  he  will  note  these  at  the  close  of  20  or  30 
minutes'  training  exercise.  Once  again,  a  progressive  advance 
will  be  observed,  which  will  exclude  any  danger  of  strain  or 
over-exertion. 

1  See  Le  Moteur  Humain,  p.  444. 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR 


163 


The  principles  of  economy,  finally,  may  be  applied  to 
many  attitudes  ;  from  that  of  the  man  who  writes  or  draws 
or  plays  a  musical  instrument  to  those  of  the  athlete,  the 
sportsman,  and  the  soldier. 

Walking,  running,  jumping,  climbing,  crawling,  and  such 
modes  of  activity  as  boxing  and  fencing,  are  subject  to  the  same 
laws  of  rhythm,  measure,  and  physiological  regulation.  I 


FIG.  60.— The  Flexed  Walk. 


have  said  all  that  is  needful  on  this  subject  in  Book  VI.  of  Le 
Moteur  Humain,  to  which  the  reader  may  refer  (p.  469). 

Gymnastics,  at  a  certain  period  of  re-education,  when  the 
articulations  have  resumed  their  normal  play,  becomes  a 
training  method  of  great  value.  I  am  speaking  above  all  of 
movements  of  the  arms  and  legs.  To  these  I  add  exercises 
with  dumb-bells  of  1  to  3  kilogrammes  (2-2  to  6-6  Ibs.)  weight, 
terminating,  under  the  most  favourable  conditions,  with 
a  weight  of  5  kilogrammes  (11  Ibs.).  The  movements  will  be 
made  in  pronation,  then  in  supination,  at  the  rate  of  80  to  100 
per  minute  (Figs.  61  and  62),  always  vigorously,  with  the 
body  in  the  normal  attitude. 


FIG.  61. — Gymnastic  Exercises  with  Dumb-bells  (Attitude  of  Body  improving). 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR 


1C5 


Other  gymnastic  and  acrobatic  exercises  merely  bring 
into  harmony  the  movements  of  the  centre  of  gravity  and  the 
force  of  the  muscular  contractions. 

Dr    Lachaud,   of  the   Chamber  of  Deputies,   insists  upon 


FIG.  62. — Gymnastic  Exercises  for  increasing  Strength. 

simple  gymnastic  exercises,  with  weights,  cords,  and  pulleys  ; 
he  recommends  what  has  improperly  been  called  manotherapy. 
I  cannot  unreservedly  support  the  views  of  this  distinguished 
politician,  for  the  movements  practised  should  in  the  first 
place  be  guided,  lest  they  should  be  performed  incorrectly,  and 
produce  malformations,  at  an  age  when  the  soldier's  skeleton  is 
often  not  completely  ossified,  or  the  muscles  fully  developed. 


166          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

Gymnastic  exercises  are  suitable  for  normal  subjects,  and 
these  they  develop  harmoniously ;  applied  to  wounded 
soldiers  and  the  infirm  they  are  merely  an  auxiliary  method  ; 
they  cannot  constitute  a  complete  means  of  functional 
re-education.  By  combining  the  education  of  the  move- 
ments with  observations  of  fatigue  we  have  completed  the 
training  of  a  few  young  men  and  of  many  hundreds  of  infirm 
subjects.  To  the  numerous  attestations  which  would  seem 
out  of  place  in  a  work  of  this  nature  I  should  prefer  personal 
verifications.  Any  one  may  test  for  himself  these  simple, 
quick,  and  economical  methods.  Experience,  aided  by  an  en- 
lightened judgement,  will  never  employ  them  without  success. 

LXXII.  Summary— Physical  Activity.— The  identity  of 
the  methods  which  should  guide  both  physical  education  and 
the  activity  of  the  craftsman  is  obvious.  It  results  from  the 
geometrical  and  harmonious  forms  of  the  contractions  ot  the 
muscles  ;  it  reveals  itself  indeed  in  the  very  effects  of  this 
contraction,  since  fatigue,  in  the  last  analysis,  is  always  an 
intoxication. 

Of  the  principles  of  the  art  of  labour,  I  would  lay  especial 
stress  upon  order  and  the  selection  of  movements.  If,  in  order 
to  execute  any  physical  action  whatever,  we  make  the  strictly 
necessary  movements,  which  alone  are  useful  in  executing  it ;  if 
we  eliminate  the  useless  movements,  and  regulate  the  succession 
of  the  useful,  we  shall  effect  a  great  saving  both  of  time  and 
fatigue.  Our  education  too  will  profit  greatly ;  a  moral 
treasure  will  be  added  to  the  betterment  of  our  well-being. 
The  organisation  which  I  am  speaking  of  involves  the  art  of 
making  movements  appropriate  to  an  end,  and  of  making  a 
rigorous  selection  of  the  same,  tending  to  an  economy  of  effort  ; 
in  other  words,  of  ordering  them  and  utilising  them  in  the 
best  possible  manner. 

Selection  and  order  are,  in  truth,  the  characteristics  of  the  new 
method,  which  will  presently  work  an  economic  revolution  to 
which  no  other  can  be  compared.  It  is  not  purely  mechanical  ; 
it  does  not  turn  a  man  into  a  soulless  body,  a  blind  and  tire- 
less force ;  it  embraces  all  the  data  of  physiology  and 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  167 

psychology,  of  which  it  alone  is  able  to  display  the  parallelism 
and  the  unfailing  harmony.  It  would  seem  to  have  taken  for 
its  guide  this  saying  of  Montaigne's  :  "  It  is  not  a  body,  it 
is  not  a  soul  that  we  are  forming  ;  it  is  a  man  ;  we  must  not 
make  two  of  him." 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE  ART  OF  LABOUR  (continued) 
INTELLECTUAL  ACTIVITY  1 

LXXIII. — In  the  intellectual  domain,  which  on  every  hand 
surrounds  the  domain  of  physical  forces,  and  overflows  it,  we 
have  attempted  to  introduce  the  discipline  of  the  art  of  labour, 
that  is,  the  same  laws  of  selection  and  co-ordination,  of  the 
organisation  of  movement.  The  application  to  the  things  of 
the  mind  of  the  laws  of  general  mechanics  seems  in  itself  to  be 
a  somewhat  hazardous  proceeding  ;  in  any  case  it  is  anything 
but  finally  worked  out.  But  being  based  upon  facts  which  are 
perfectly  established,  although  not  large  in  number,  and  being 
moreover  carefully  verified  and  controlled,  it  is  lacking  neither 
in  interest  nor  in  social  and,  above  all,  pedagogical  value. 
For  these  two  reasons  it  is  worthy  of  the  reader's  attention. 

LXXIV.  Complexity  of  Intellectual  Work.— The  problem 
to  be  solved  does  not  necessarily  presuppose  the  knowledge 
of  that  something  which  has  in  turn  constituted  the  object  of 
meditation  of  the  philosophers,  the  theologians,  and  the 
physiologists — namely,  the  mind  or  soul ;  or,  in  a  narrower 
acceptation,  the  intelligence  or  understanding.  The  classic 
methodology  indeed  distinguishes  between  the  intelligence  of 
the  will  and  that  of  the  perceptions;  it  places  them  in  a 
hierarchy  of  the  faculties,  which  are  more  and  more  highly 
spiritualised  as  they  are  further  in  the  scale  from  perception. 

1  This  chapter  was  published  as  an  article  in  La  Revue,  for  1  June,  1914,  under 
the  title  L 'Art  de  penser.  I  should  mention  that  since  that  date  (in  1916)  a 
volume  has  appeared  under  the  same  title,  whose  author,  one  Clement  Goh, 
has  plagiarised  my  article,  and  has  most  unhappily  spun  it  out  over  200  pages. 

168 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  169 

But  from  the  experimental  and  physiological  point  of  view 
the  matter  wears  another  aspect.  Will  and  perception  are, 
in  unequal  degrees,  both  functions  of  nervous  activity,  strictly 
adhering  to  its  modalities  ;  they  are  its  qualitative  expres- 
sion. The  good  or  the  evil  we  do,  said  Diderot,  depends 
on  the  condition  of  our  diaphragm.  This  determination,  or 
considered  as  a  doctrine,  this  determinism,  does  not  influence 
the  function  of  thought ;  it  perceives,  with  a  kind  of  internal 
vision,  that  which  is  good  and  that  which  is  bad,  appreciating, 
comparing,  and  judging,  apparently  quite  freely. 

The.  intelligence  is  therefore  the  series  of  operations  which 
effect  the  representation  and  the  classification  of  our  ideas. 
Because  it  resuscitates  images  and  transfers  them  to  its  plane 
of  vision,  it  fulfils  a  function  of  the  affective  order ;  that  is  to 
say,  subordinated  to  the  condition  of  the  nervous  system  ; 
it  arouses  great  numbers  of  neurones,  re-awakens  the  cellular 
vibrations,  and  harmonises  them  with  the  vibrations  of  other 
cells  ;  a  circuit  of  vital  energy  unites  the  elements  of  the 
cerebral  substance.  This  is  a  purely  physiological  process, 
due  to  several  causes.  Sometimes  it  is  provoked  by  the 
peripheral  sensitive  neurones,  those  of  the  sight,  the  touch, 
the  hearing  ;  sometimes  by  humoral  variations  ;  a  fit  of  in- 
digestion, like  an  emotion,  stirs  up  the  whole  swarm  of  dreams, 
and  disperses  them  upon  all  the  winds  of  fiction.  To  these 
solicitations  the  nerve-cell  responds  by  a  greater  activity,  and 
the  reflexes  draw  upon  the  muscles  of  the  face,  with  strokes  of 
varying  emphasis,  the  ripples  of  the  tide  of  emotions  which 
has  swept  through  them  (Fig.  63).  These  muscular  contrac- 
tions have  all  the  diversity  of  the  emotions  themselves,  and, 
by  their  force  and  duration,  they  reveal  the  gravity  of  the 
sensitive  phenomenon  ;  sometimes  there  is  a  contracture,  a 
painful  spasm.  This  muscular  effort  causes  the  blood  to 
surge  into  the  organ  of  thought.  Also,  during  prolonged 
or  intense  intellectual  exertion,  or  during  slumber  agitated 
by  dreams,  the  temperature  of  the  brain  undergoes  a  slight 
increase ;  the  pulse  is  very  marked  in  the  temples  ;  there  is  a 
feeling  of  heat  and  a  smarting  sensation  in  the  face,  but  the 
peripheral  organs  are  sacrificed  ;  the  feet  and  legs  are  cold. 


170 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


When  such  phenomena  are  frequently  repeated,  when  the 
periods  of  mental  activity  are  combined  with  too  few  periods 
of  repose,  there  are  manifestations  of  cerebral  fatigue;  the 
head  grows  heavy,  the  eyes  become  bloodshot ;  the  sight  is 
troubled  by  a  diminished  convergence  of  the  pupils,  and  by  a 


Rejection  Meditation. 
Superior  orbital  portion  of 
orbicu/arisga/pebrarum. 


Amazement.  Attention. 
Frontal  Muscles. 


Grief     Pain. 
Corruyator  Superci/i/. 


Laughing, 
lygomat  icus  rnaji 


Weeping. 
Elevators  of  upper  lip. 


PJ 


Discontent.  Disdain 
Depressor  gngu/i  or/s 


FIG.  63. — Diagrammatic  Expression  of  the  Emotions. 


convexity  of  the  lens  ;    the  respiration  is  superficial  and  ir- 
regular, and  the  heart  slows  down. 

Toxic  waste  products  accumulate  in  the  organism.  They 
are  eliminated  in  the  urine,  but  their  effect  upon  the  power  of 
the  muscles  is  already  revealed  by  a  rapid  diminution  of  the 
tracings  obtained  by  means  of  the  cheirograph,  while  their 
effect  upon  the  sensibility  is  betrayed  by  high  readings  on  the 
aesthesiometer.  The  respiratory  exchanges  increase  in  intensity, 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  171 

by  about  7  to  11  per  cent.,  and  the  consumption  of  oxygen 
measures  the  extent  of  this  complex  activity,  which  is  increased 
by  attention,  but  diminished  by  training  and  habit.1  The 
digestive  secretions,  on  the  other  hand,  are  modified,  and 
partially  inhibited.2  The  vegetative  life  diminishes  its  activi- 
ties, in  order  to  give  full  scope  to  the  life  of  the  higher  nerve- 
centres.  Then,  as  we  have  said,  the  mental  images  are  revived, 
and  the  intelligence  has  performed  a  task  of  a  physiological 
nature.  Only  the  selection  and  the  ordering  of  ideas  appear 
in  the  intelligence  as  something  of  a  different  essence,  a  really 
transcendent  power. 

This  is  precisely  what  we  wished  to  establish  :  namely, 
that  the  exercise  of  the  mind  mingles  operations  which  are 
true  nervous  reactions,  reflexes,  affective  conditions,  with  other 
important  operations  which  dominate  the  sphere  of  perception. 
But  we  of  course  intend  it  to  be  understood  that  both  cate- 
gories of  phenomena  result  from  the  physiological  activity  of 
the  organism,  and  are  subject  to  all  the  disturbances  and 
eddies  of  life  ;  they  levy  tribute  on  the  resources  of  the  organ- 
ism ;  they  represent  organic  effort ;  they  involve  a  certain 
expenditure  of  energy  which  produces  fatigue,  for  nothing  in 
nature  is  gratuitous. 

And  here  we  are  at  the  very  heart  of  the  problem  stated  in 
the  beginning  :  whether,  in  the  living  world  as  in  the  inani- 
mate world,  energies  are  not  merely  transformed  ;  if,  for 
example,  muscular  energy  has  its  source  in  the  chemical 
energy  of  the  aliments  absorbed,  to  what  origin  are  we  to  refer 
intellectual  energy  ?  Whence  does  it  spring  ?  And  how 
can  it  be  utilised  without  loss  ? 

LXXV.    The    Origin    of    Intellectual    Energy.  —  Two 

American  scientists,  Benedict  and  Carpenter,  after  laborious 
experiment,  succeeded  in  demonstrating  that  the  exercise 
of  thought  by  itself  occasions  very  little  expenditure;  it  figures 
as  a  very  small  item  in  the  alimentary  budget.  A  man  who 

1  Johanssohn,  Skand.  Arch.,  Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  85,  1898;— Becker  and  Olsen, 
ibid.,  Vol.  XXXL,  p.  81,  1914;— Die  Umschau,  Xo.  19,  1912. 

2  Brunacci  and  De  Sanctis,  Archivia  di  Fisiol,  Vol.,  XII.,  p.  441,  1914. 


172          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

expends  2,400  calories  in  the  twenty-four  hours  for  his 
energetical  maintenance  expends  barely  9  or  10  calories 
more  when  he  devotes  himself  to  long  meditations,  resolves 
difficult  equations,  makes  learned  calculations,  and  in  short 
thinks,  for  8  hours  a  day. 

The  subject  was  enclosed  in  the  calometric  chamber  already 
described  (Fig.  3),  where  he  was  presented  with  a  heavy  German 
treatise  on  mathematical  physics.  The  energy  radiated  in 
the  form  of  heat  was  measured  outside,  unknown  to  him. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  have  verified  the  fact  that  the  consump- 
tion of  oxygen  is  only  very  slightly  modified  when  students,  in  a 
condition  of  perfect  repose,  devote  themselves  to  complicated 
mental  operations.1  It  is  obvious  that  in  these  different  cases 
we  are  estimating  the  increased  expenditure  of  intellectual 
energy,  seeing  that  the  mind  is  never  absolutely  at  rest.  But  to 
represent  me  as  saying  that  the  expenditure  of  energy  rises, 
at  the  moment  when  the  mind  begins  to  work,  from  zero  to  a 
positive  value,  and  to  find  in  my  argument  a  positive  contradic- 
tion in  terms,  as  did  a  writer  in  a  Dutch  review,  is,  as  anyone 
will  perceive,  completely  unjust.2 

"  The  great  difficulty,"  we  repeat,  with  Voltaire,  "  is  there- 
fore to  understand  how  any  creature  comes  to  have  thoughts." 

And  indeed  the  whole  difficulty  is  there.  For  him  who 
considers  the  nervous  operations  which  record  images,  pre- 
serve them,  and  repeat  them,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  they 
never  cease  ;  that  they  are  an  attribute  of  life,  and  its  accom- 
paniment. No  state  of  rest  absolutely  interrupts  them, 
serving  as  a  starting-point  from  which  we  can  measure  the 
expenditure  of  energy  which  their  profound  and  invisible 
exercise  involves.  In  this  respect  the  principle  of  the  con- 
servation of  energy  which  governs  the  universe  remains 
unshaken.  But  the  mind  retains  its  mysterious  secret ;  it 
remains  withdrawn,  beyond  the  cycle  of  the  vital  energies  ; 
a  fact  which  is  wholly  disconcerting,  unless  indeed  we  have 
recourse  to  a  recent  explanation,  inspired  by  the  phe- 
nomena described  as  radioactive.  Certain  substances  undergo 

1 1  have  described  these  experiments  in  Le  Moteur  Humain,  p.  278. 
2  Wettenschappelijke  Bidden,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  1,  1912. 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  173 

disintegration,  spontaneously  dissociating  themselves,  with 
a  secular  deliberation,  producing  light,  heat,  and  electricity. 
The  example  of  radium  points  to  this  transformation  of 
matter,  which  exhausts  itself  and  disappears  when  once  it 
has  liberated  all  its  reserves  of  energy. 

Can  it  be  that  thought  also  constitutes  a  radioactive  pheno- 
menon ?  Is  it  evolved  from  the  disappearing  cerebral  sub- 
stance by  a  process  as  yet  inexplicable  ? 

If  this  were  so  the  differences  between  the  radioactive  or 
dissociative  powers  of  the  cerebral  substance  would  explain 
the  differences  of  intellectual  vigour  and  vivacity  to  be 
observed  in  different  persons,  just  as  the  characteristic  qualities 
of  the  sources  of  light  affect  its  intensity  or  illuminating  power. 
However,  the  radioactive  origin  of  thought  is  not  proven. 
Although  it  has  been  noted  that  the  nervous  tissues,  and 
especially  the  brain,  are  highly  radioactive,1  it  has  also  been 
recognised  that  this  property  results  from  the  absorption  of 
the  traces  of  radioactive  substances  contained  in  our  solid 
and  liquid  aliments,  and  in  all  mineral  waters. 

All  that  we  can  venture  to  suggest  is  that  the  disaggregation 
of  the  cells  of  the  brain  liberates  intellectual  energy  directly 
and  exclusively,  without  the  usual  intermediaries  :  without 
heat  or  the  emission  of  electricity.  For  our  cells  are  assuredly 
the  theatre  of  a  material  evolution  which  affects  even  the 
molecule,  breaks  it  up  into  infinitesimal  fragments,  and  in 
particular  destroys  its  phosphated  elements  and  nuclei.  These 
are  the  compounds  rich  in  phosphorus,  the  colourable  portion 
of  the  nerve-cell — that  is,  the  chromatin — which,  being  by 
reason  of  their  organic  bases  in  an  unstable  molecular  condition, 
seem  doomed  to  this  slow  destruction,  and  exhaust  them- 
selves in  the  operations  of  the  cerebral  cortex,  the  very  body 
of  the  cell  becoming  reduced.2  And  as  in  the  activity  of  the 
muscles,  the  organic  development  taking  place  in  these  nuclear 
substances  pioduces  toxins,  and  renders  acid  the  chemical 
environment  which,  normally,  and  in  a  state  of  repose,  is 

1A.  Caan,  Sitzungsb.  d.  Heid.  d.  Akad,  d.  Wissensch.,  V.,  1911. 
2Lugaro,  Arch,  ital  Biol,  Vol.  XXIV.,  p.  258,  1895;— Guerrini,  ibid.,  Vol. 
XXXII.,  p.  62,  1899 ;— Marinesco,  Engelm.  Arch.  f.  Physiologic,  p.  89,  1899. 


174         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

alkaline.  It  is  an  actual  disaggregation,  which  is  aggravated 
by  external  stimulations,  such  as  luminous  impressions,1 
but  above  all  by  fatigue.  Then  the  nervous  reactions  grow 
weaker  and  thought  is  arrested,  inhibited,  poisoned  ;  it  has 
even  been  noted  that  the  filaments  of  the  neurones  shrink  and 
retract  themselves,  so  that  the  multiple  connections  thereby 
effected  within  the  brain  are  less  to  be  relied  upon.2 

Rest,  sleep,  food,  that  is  to  say,  above  all,  the  blood,  will 
repair  this  temporary  derangement. 

We  must  wait  for  more  precise  details  as  to  the  delicate 
and  wonderful  process  which  gradually  exhausts  the  nervous 
substance,  giving  rise  to  an  energy  of  the  highest  order  ;  in  the 
meantime  let  us  consider  the  work  peculiar  to  the  mind.  And 
let  us  proclaim  that  it  is  possible  to  organise  this  work,  to 
employ  it  more  effectually,  if  we  resort  to  rational  methods, 
and  to  effect  considerable  savings.  For  under  the  infinite 
variety  of  its  forms  it  necessitates  operations  of  the  same 
nature  as  those  of  physical  activity,  and  as  far  as  the  economy 
of  effort  is  concerned  there  is  nothing  to  distinguish  between 
the  exercise  of  the  mental  functions  and  the  exercise  of  the 
muscles. 

LXXVI.  The  Organisation  of  Intellectual  Work. — But 

the  work  of  the  intellect  is  twofold.  On  the  one  hand  it  consists 
of  finding,  within  itself,  or  seeking  for,  ideas.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  sets  itself  to  organise  these  ideas  ;  and  by  this  we 
mean  to  utilise  these  ideas  in  an  order  and  according  to  a  plan 
which  increases  their  value. 

It  seems  that  the  first  undertaking,  being  comparatively 
easy,  has  less  need  than  the  second  oi  being  improved  and 
reinforced.  The  reserves  of  ideas  which  a  man  possesses  in 
his  own  brain  are  enriched  by  reading,  conversation,  and  daily 
experience.  Now  this,  too,  demands  a  certain  discipline. 
To  read,  or  to  be  read  to,  would  serve  no  essentially  useful  end 
did  not  the  attention  apply  itself  to  the  task  of  extracting  new 

1  Muller  and  Ott,  Pfliig  Arch.,  Vol.  GUI.,  p.  493, 1904;— Lodato  and  Miceli, 
Arch.  d.  oftalm.,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  294  and  327,  1903. 
1  Trans.  Lab.  Inst.  Solvay,  Brussels,  Vols.  I.  and  II.,  1897-1898. 


THE    ART    OF   LABOUR  175 

ideas  and  furnishing  the  mind  with  them  ;  if  it  did  not  defend 
the  mind,  by  a  process  of  rational  elimination,  against  all  the 
incidental  reflections  and  literary  stop-gaps  which  in  general 
inflate  speech  without  enriching  it. 

It  behoves  the  mind,  which  is  endowed  with  the  power  of 
selection,  to  exercise  it  rigorously,  while  expending  upon  it  as 
little  energy  as  possible. 

The  child  should  be  educated  according  to  these  principles  ; 
he  should  be  taught  to  take  hold  only  of  those  ideas  which 
pre-eminently  concern  a  subject,  instead  of  running  after  all 
those  that  glitter,  and  whose  brilliance  often  masks  their 
fragility.  The  schoolmaster  or  lecturer  should  show  him  how 
the  art  of  speaking,  of  speaking  well,  serves  to  give  a  striking 
prominence  to  those  mental  conceptions  which  are  worthy  of 
it,  and  to  keep  them  forcibly  in  view.  I  should  never  place 
my  academic  trust  in  a  professor  who  was  a  bad  speaker,  and 
who,  far  from  exhibiting,  as  in  a  show-case,  the  pearls  of 
knowledge,  buried  them  in  the  trash  of  his  obscure  verbiage. 
Moreover,  eloquence  is  genuine  only  when  it  is  ordered.  The 
best  orators  possess  perfectly  organised  brains,  which  they  have 
not  necessarily  overloaded.  Erudition,  of  a  widely  miscellan- 
eous character,  would  be  almost  a  hindrance  to  them,  while 
by  moving  along  the  same  grooves  of  thought  it  enables  them 
to  discuss  their  subjects  readily,  and  as  though  without 
effort,  training  and  adapting  them  to  a  specialised  mode  of 
intellectual  activity. 

We  would  not  have  this  specialisation  exclude  a  solid 
general  culture;  on  the  contrary,  it  should  find,  in  such  a 
culture,  its  natural  setting,  the  setting  which  will  best  harmon- 
ise with  it.  But  the  division  of  labour,  which  limits  the 
mental  field,  is  far  less  to  be  feared  than  the  lack  of  mental 
order  caused  by  excessive  work  undertaken  in  many  directions. 
One  cannot  lose  one's  way  in  an  alley,  but  the  forest  is 
treacherous. 

Writing,  like  speech,  demands  order  and  method,  so  that  the 
reader  may  easily  assimilate  the  dominant  ideas,  the  only 
ideas  which  count,  and  so  that  his  attention  may  not  be 
•divided.  The  art  of  writing  consists,  therefore,  in  being 


176          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

simple,  direct,  and  accurate,  that  is  to  say,  clear,  and  in  con- 
ceiving ideas  clearly  in  order  that  they  may  be  clearly  expressed. 
After  all,  the  writer  is  always  understood  if  his  knowledge  is 
profound  and  methodical.  He  can,  in  the  words  of  Montaigne, 
teach  Greek  and  Latin  "  without  tears,"  and  more  particularly 
can  he  teach  the  sciences,  whose  essential  object  is  the  economy 
of  thought  by  means  of  demonstrations  and  general  laws. 
How  much  time  and  effort  could  students  of  all  ages  be  saved 
if  they  were  not  only  too  often  compelled  to  re-read  an  author 
several  times  before  understanding  him  !  But  how  many 
writers  could  be  dispensed  with  if  the  reign  of  darkness  in  our 
teaching  centres  were  to  terminate  !  In  our  days  people  would 
not  tolerate  a  police  force  which  should  forbid  the  circulation 
of  confused  writings,  which  should  forbid  the  vagabondage 
of  ideas  along  the  paths  of  literature.  Nevertheless,  it  is  a 
question  which  deserves  consideration.  A  man  does  not  write 
for  himself  ;  he  addresses  himself  to  readers  young  and  old, 
and  professes  to  instruct  them.  The  problem  is  to  make  sure 
that  this  instruction  is  elaborated  in  such  a  way  as  to  cost 
the  recipient  the  minimum  of  effort,  and  to  afford  him  the 
pleasure  and  advantage  of  shaping  his  consciousness. 

The  facts  which  teach  are  the  important  facts,  because 
they  hold  the  attention  and  are  representative  ;  they  are  true 
symbols.  Science  employs  such  symbols  in  order  to  spare  us 
detail  ;  it  seeks  out  numerical  relations,  and  then,  retaining 
only  the  general  character  of  these  relations,  it  ignores  the 
figures.  Algebra,  in  this  respect,  effects  an  intellectual 
economy  by  means  of  its  notations  ;  the  same  is  true  of 
physics,  and  every  science  which  has  a  mathematical 
character. 

The  logical  character  of  the  relation  between  facts  should 
be  established  with  equal  care.  For  example,  consider  the 
tie  of  causality.  It  is  good  that  one  thing  should  involve 
another  as  its  consequence.  What  a  wonderful  discovery 
is  this  of  the  universal  and  logical  connection  of  the  conquests 
of  knowledge  ! 

The  most  beautiful  laws  cover  the  widest  domain.  Such 
are  Newton's  law  of  universal  gravitation,  and  Descartes'  law  of 


THE   ART   OF   LABOUR  177 

refraction.  And  they  are  the  most  admirable  because  they 
lessen  the  fatigue  of  the  intellect. 

Lastly,  other  ideas  take  shape  from  the  experience  of 
life,  lived  in  all  its  fulness,  life  as  it  is,  with  all  its  vicissitudes, 
like  a  sea  that  abounds  with  reefs.  Never  drag  the  growing 
youth  wholly  out  of  reach  of  these  difficulties  of  life  ;  from 
those  which  are  the  work  of  men  even  less  than  from  those 
which  originate  in  things.  The  egoism  and  the  moral  defects 
which  are  to  be  encountered  in  our  fellow  men  will  teach  him 
unforgettable  lessons.  But  one  must  take  care  that  he  extri- 
cates himself  from  his  mistakes,  and  fights  his  social  battles, 
by  upright  and  honest  conduct.  Virtue  and  truth  are 
terrible  weapons  which  triumph  over  all  things.  One  must 
learn  to  handle  these  weapons,  and  to  do  so  one  must  serve 
an  apprenticeship  of  action. 

This  is  how  the  task  of  the  mind  should  be  maintained 
and  regulated,  considering  it  from  the  point  of  view  of  its. 
regular  alimentation  and  repair.  No  useless  aliments  ;  none 
of  bad  quality  ;  no  waste  of  cerebral  energy. 

LXXVII. — The  second  point  of  view,  we  noted,  embraces 
the  work  of  the  mind  which  utilises  accumulated  materials.  It 
proceeds  as  follows  :  Do  we  wish  to  reflect  on  a  given  subject, 
or  to  solve  a  scientific  or  philosophical  problem  ?  Gradually 
our  ideas  awaken,  bestir  themselves,  and  hasten  forward. 
Generally  they  make  their  appearance  in  the  natural  order  : 
that  is  to  say,  singly,  without  connecting  links,  each  deter- 
mined by  a  sort  of  reaction  or  reflex. 

The  natural  order  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a  battalion 
on  the  march  when  the  step  is  broken.  The  men  march  "  all 
anyhow,"  diversely  impelled,  given  over  to  hazard.  To  one 
who  sees  them  from  a  distance  the  battalion  is  marching  as  a 
whole,  despite  the  confusion  of  ranks.  But  it  travels  less 
quickly ;  it  presents  less  cohesion  and  solidity,  and  a  less 
smart  appearance  than  a  battalion  which  is  keeping  step, 
closing  its  ranks  behind  its  leaders,  and  obeying  their  orders. 

The  same  discipline  ought  to  be  applied  to  the  ideas  which 
travel  in  a  host  through  the  whole  region  of  the  mind.  At 


178         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

first,  when  we  are  still  apprentices,  we  allow  them  to  follow 
one  another  spontaneously  at  the  point  of  the  pen,  and  when 
not  one  is  left  worth  the  trouble  of  recording  it  in  writing,  we 
subject  them  to  a  severe  examination.  That  idea  will  come 
first  which  in  the  natural  order  was  third  or  fourth,  and  so 
with  the  rest.  All  will  be  classified,  set  in  a  hierarchy,  so  that 
the  accessory  shall  not  get  the  better  of  the  principal  idea ; 
so  that  an  internally  controlled  order  of  succession  shall 
preserve  both  their  intrinsic  value,  and  that  secondary  value, 
which  results  from  the  logical  relation  established  between 
them. 

Such  a  concatenation  excludes  prolixity  and  digressions  and 
useless  references.  The  economy  of  words  is  the  saving  of 
time  by  means  which  signally  increase  the  force  of  the  argu- 
ment, and  unfold  it  in  a  concentrated  light. 

It  is  the  function  of  practice,  steadily  maintained,  to  impose 
upon  the  mind  this  manner  of  working,  whatever  the  basis 
of  ideas  upon  which  it  is  building.  Habit  finally  renders 
easy,  almost  automatic,  the  classification  of  ideas,  provided 
that  the  attention  corrects  at  every  moment  the  deviations 
from  this  discipline.  One  can  understand  that  this  very 
discipline  finds  it  difficult  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  many 
keen  excitations  which,  from  without,  shake  its  ranks,  and 
why  reflection  and  meditation  are  more  efficacious  when  one 
is  able  to  abstract  oneself  from  one's  surroundings.  A  richly 
furnished  brain  will  elaborate  coherent  and  ordered  ideas  in 
this  "  ivory  tower."  A  scientific  man,  a  director  or  manager 
of  factories,  or  an  engineer,  will  be  able  more  usefully  and 
with  greater  certainty  to  collate  the  items  of  his  acquired 
experience.  We  should  never  follow  the  "  first  impulse  "  ; 
it  is  the  most  heedless  impulse  ;  it  is  a  reflex  determined  by 
an  external  action  ;  in  spite  of  the  popular  saying,  "  first 
thoughts  "  are  not  "  best  thoughts."  Let  us  examine  our- 
selves ;  let  us  take  time  to  hold  debate  with  ourselves.  Let 
us  accustom  our  cerebral  channels  of  inhibition  and  our 
neurones  of  control  to  the  necessary  task  of  elimination.  The 
man  who,  to  some  extent  by  heredity,  and  largely  by  educa- 
tion, possesses  this  type  of  nervous  organisation,  should  under 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  179 

any  circumstances  hold  an  advantage  over  other  men  ;  for  he 
will  display  firmness,  judgement,  and  method.  He  will  be  under- 
stood, and  obeyed,  without  effort. 

We  may  be  equally  certain  that  one  of  the  most  important 
preoccupations  of  the  orator  is  to  cause  the  various  elements 
of  his  speech  to  be  grasped  without  fatigue,  and  in  perfect 
order.  If  his  memory  is  not  very  reliable  he  has  recourse  to  a 
plan  drafted  in  advance.  The  ornaments  of  speech  which  he 
employs  are  intended  to  capture  the  attention,  to  prepare  it 
to  follow  his  argument,  and  to  sustain  it  to  the  end.  They 
encourage  his  auditors  to  accept  the  intellectual  labour  de- 
manded of  them,  and  they  break  its  continuity.  For  the 
activity  of  the  mind  is  rhythmical  and  intermittent,  like  the 
activity  of  the  muscles.  The  psychical  ego  withdraws  itself 
at  intervals  from  the  strain  of  thought,  taking  refuge,  by  prefer- 
ence, on  some  flower-strewn  bank. 

It  would  seem  that  rhetoric  is  born  of  this  twofold  need  of 
order  and  method.  Rhetoric,  then,  we  must  have ;  but  not 
too  much  of  it.  It  would  be  contrary  to  the  scientific  principles 
expounded  in  these  pages  to  reduce  the  domain  of  ideas  in 
favour  of  the  domain  of  words,  even  were  these  the  most 
gorgeous,  the  most  happily  chosen.  The  adornment  of  speech 
is  a  means,  not  an  end.  When  I  run  through  several  pages 
of  a  book  which  is  stuffed  with  fine  phrases,  and  am 
unable  to  discover  in  them  even  a  few  fine  ideas,  I  quickly 
put  it  aside. 

Happy  is  the  writer  who  can  make  his  reader  think  !  He 
will  never  have  a  foolish  reader. 

LXXVIII.  Applications. — In  nature  movement  is  squan- 
dered, because  those  conditions  do  not  exist  which  favour  its 
perfect  utilisation,  either  in  the  physical  order  or  the  intel- 
lectual. Mechanical  science  endeavours  to  achieve  this  per- 
fection in  inanimate  motors  and  living  motors  alike  ;  but  it 
will  be  a  long  time  before  it  succeeds,  despite  the  great  progress 
effected  in  the  last  few  years. 

As  far  as  thought  is  concerned,  mechanical  science  can  do 
little  more  than  furnish  indications  and  simple  practical  rules, 


180          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

which  enable  us  to  reduce  fatigue,  and  to  give  a  true  direction 
to  the  activity  of  the  mind.  This  activity,  as  we  have 
remarked,  "  is  susceptible  of  discipline  and  method.  Great 
intellectual  power  may  manifest  itself  in  disorder  and  uncon- 
trolled overflow.  Such  waste  is  the  result  of  an  unscientific 
education  and  unruly  habits  of  thought.  The  delicate  mechan- 
isms of  the  brain  must  neither  be  exhausted  nor  forced  to  go 
awry."  1 

We  should  therefore  reason  out  our  actions,  and  we  should 
sort  out  our  ideas,  arranging  them  clearly,  while  clothing  them, 
if  we  will,  in  the  fashions  of  the  day.  Otherwise  we  run  the  risk 
of  refutation,  or  incomprehension.  In  rehearsing  them  we 
must  give  all  our  attention  to  the  matter,  weighing  every 
word,  considering  each  purpose.  If  the  work  is  of  secondary 
importance,  and  if,  as  a  matter  of  professional  necessity,  it 
must  be  rapidly  executed,  it  is  expedient  to  sacrifice  to  haste  a 
little  of  the  intellectual  labour  which  we  should  otherwise 
put  into  the  work,  unless  indeed  it  is  possible  to  reconcile 
haste  and  intellectual  effort.  The  mental  effort  is  measured 
by  the  attention,  and  rapidity  of  thought  by  the  number  of 
different  facts  embraced  in  a  given  time.  Cerebral  fatigue 
is  the  result  of  these  two  factors. 

To  diminish  this  fatigue,  intellectual  labour  will  be  divided 
into  periods  of  one  or  two  hours,  according  to  its  nature,  and 
these  will  alternate  with  periods  of  comparative  repose  ;  that 
is  to  say,  these  intervals  of  time  will  be  devoted  to  moderate 
physical  exercise  :  to  walking,  games,  or  conversation. 

A  mental  effort  of  several  hours'  duration  enfeebles  the 
cellular  reactions,  intoxicates  the  neurones,  and  thereby 
impairs  the  quality  as  well  as  the  order  of  the  ideas  ;  the 
writer  hesitates ;  the  workman  miscalculates ;  both  have 
suffered  a  temporary  depreciation  ;  care  must  be  taken  that 
it  does  not  become  aggravated. 

To  devote  two  hours'  attendance  in  class  or  lecture-room  to 
the  exact  sciences,  without  a  few  minutes'  interruption,  is  to 
commit  an  error  in  pedagogics  ;  for  after  the  first  hour  the 
capacity  to  attend  and  the  ability  to  understand  are  already 

1  Le  Moteur  Humain,  p.  590. 


THE    ART    OF    LABOUR  181 

diminished  ;  1  more  so  in  the  afternoon  than  in  the  morning. 
But  the  fund  of  nervous  energy  may  be  reconstituted  by  a 
suitable  diet  and  a  little  open-air  exercise,  by  cheerful  and 
amusing  entertainments,  by  the  distraction  of  the  senses  of 
sight  and  hearing.  The  monotony  of  work,  whatever  its 
nature,  must  be  broken,  in  conformity  with  the  law  of  rhythm 
which  governs  the  organism,  and  which  is  inscribed  in  parti- 
cular upon  the  nerve-centres  of  the  brain.  Obedience  to  this 
law  alone  will  enable  human  activity  to  remain  intact,  regular, 
and  efficacious. 

This  is  why  we  should  profit  by  these  wholesome  doctrines  ; 
why  we  should  endeavour  to  adapt  the  efforts  of  the  mind  to 
the  result  to  be  obtained  ;  to  co-ordinate  them  ;  to  allow 
nothing  to  be  dissipated  in  sheer  wastefulness.  As  this  discip- 
line is  more  closely  followed,  a  gradual  diminution  of  fatigue 
is  observed,  though  the  nature  of  the  mental  effort  and  its 
duration  remain  the  same. 

LXXIX. — Such  are  the  novel  principles  which  I  wished  to 
expound  ;  it  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  their  manifold  applica- 
tions, whether  social  or  industrial.  There  is  one  application, 
however,  which  bears  upon  the  intellectual  development  of 
the  child  ;  it  is  the  art  of  teaching,  a  subject  which  M.  Marcel 
Prevost  has  vigorously  treated  in  a  few  masterly  pages.2 
This  eminent  writer  reveals  the  full  educative  value  of  the 
scientific  organisation  of  teaching,  and  the  profound  truths 
which  underlie  this  organisation.  Neither  Taylor  nor  myself, 
who  had  considered  the  problem  in  all  its  general  bearings,  and 
had  formulated  laws  which  are  in  a  sense  universal,  could  so 
usefully  have  grappled  with  a  special  subject  such  as  the  art 
of  teaching.  And  while  we  find  a  pupil  of  Taylor's  condemning, 
even  to  excess,  the  use  of  caligraphic  ornaments ;  3  while 
business  men  and  administrative  officials  are,  seemingly  at 
least,  expressing  a  certain  desire  for  progress  in  the  direction 
of  a  reduced  production  of  superfluous  documents,  I  like  to 
recall  this  very  curious  passage  of  Montaigne's.  "The  letters 

1  Bellei,  Riv.  sp.  freniat.  e  med.  leg.,  Vol.  XXX.,  p.  17,  1904. 

2  See  Annales  politiques  et  litteraires,  21  December,  1913,  to  29  March,  1914. 

3  Gilbreth,  Motion  Study,  p.  100. 


182          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

of  this  age  consist  more  of  margins  and  prefaces  than  of  matter. 
How  much  rather  would  I  compose  two  letteis  than  close  and 
fold  one,  who  always  resign  this  duty  to  some  other,  just  as 
when  the  matter  is  finished  I  would  gladly  leave  to  another 
the  duty  of  adding  to  it  those  long  harangues,  tenders,  and 
requests,  for  which  we  find  room  at  the  close,  and  wish  that  some 
new  custom  should  discharge  us  from  it." 


CHAPTER    VIII 
APPRENTICESHIP 

LXXX.  Apprenticeship  and  Re -apprenticeship. — Ap- 
prenticeship is  the  decisive  factor  of  national  wealth.  It 
consists  in  the  technical  and  psycho-physiological  shaping  of  the 
man.  Every  profession  necessitates  an  apprenticeship  through 
which  it  becomes  a  habitude  of  the  mind  and  the  body,  a 
habitude  which  to  a  varying  extent  leaves  its  traces  on  the 
organism  and  creates  inclinations  or  aptitudes. 

Without  resulting  in  a  kind  of  instinct,  like  the  instinct  of 
the  bees  to  construct  a  comb,  such  hereditary  tendencies  make 
for  perfection,  for  professional  skill.  The  repetition  of  the  same 
actions,  or  the  same  trains  of  thought,  endows  the  nervous  system 
with  a  peculiar  sensibility,  which  facilitates  the  performance  of 
these  actions,  directing  and  guiding  the  thoughts  in  a  given 
path.  We  are  familiar  with  many  examples  of  this  pro- 
fessional vocation,  whether  of  musicians,  or  men  of  letters, 
or  physicians,  or  soldiers  ;  and  in  the  bygone  centuries  the 
professional  vocation  was  a  very  great  power  in  the  heart  of 
the  guilds  or  corporations,  and  exerted  soveieign  rule  over  the 
family.  During  the  last  forty  or  fifty  years  all  this  has  been 
completely  changed,  to  the  detriment  of  our  prosperity. 
We  have  ceased  to  love  the  calling  for  its  own  sake  ;  our  young 
men  are  proud  and  ambitious.  "  Ouvrier  ne  suis,  apprenti  ne 
daigne,  fonctionnaire  suis."  (Workman  I  am  not ;  I  do  not 
deign  to  be  an  apprentice  ;  I  am  an  official.)  Men  seek  for 
situations  which  demand  the  least  effort,  yet  reward  them 
with  wealth  and  honour.  When  we  perceive  how  ignorance 
and  incompetence  rule  throughout  society  we  feel  discouraged, 
and  we  understand  why  so  many  far-seeing  persons  blame 


184         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

the  apprenticeship  crisis.  For  all,  whatever  the  social  plane 
on  which  they  live,  have  need  of  apprenticeship  ;  that  is, 
of  the  lessons  taught  by  things  ;  of  the  lessons  of  life,  so 
fertile  in  virtues,  in  ideas,  and  in  the  principles  of  discipline 
and  education. 

The  age  at  which  these  lessons  yield  the  best  fruit  is,  as 
we  have  seen  (§  19),  between  13  and  20  years  for  boys,  and 
for  girls  between  11  and  18  years.  From  the  purely  industrial 
point  of  view  the  army  of  labour,  in  countries  which  have 
adopted  conscription,  should  have  completed  its  apprentice- 
ship at  the  moment  when  it  is  called  to  the  colours.  In  this 
way  it  is  educated  and  instructed  during  the  period  of  its 
physiological  and  moral  growth.  But  to-day  the  wounded 
soldiers  who  are  forced  by  the  war  to  change  their  calling, 
the  soldiers  who  are  suffering  from  serious  infirmities,  and 
those  who  have  suffered  amputation,  are  entering  upon  a  fresh 
apprenticeship,  at  the  age  of  25  and  often  of  30  years.  This 
re-apprenticeship  is  obviously  facilitated  by  the  general  experi- 
ence and  mental  maturity  of  these  men  ;  it  is  none  the  less 
a  very  ticklish  system  of  education,  in  which  we  must  beware 
of  committing  blunders  as  to  the  vocational  direction  to  be 
followed,  and  the  physical  capacities  available.  We  shall 
return  to  this  point  later  on. 

The  organisation  of  apprenticeship,  therefore,  confronts 
us  with  a  twofold  problem  :  a  problem  at  once  technical  and 
physiological;  a  problem  of  industrial  practice  and  social 
hygiene. 

LXXXI.  The  Present  Condition  of  Apprenticeship. — But 

what,  to  begin  with,  is  the  crisis  of  which  we  hear  people  speak  ? 
What  was  its  origin,  and  what  remedies  have  been  found  for 
it  ?  People  complain  that  the  environment  in  which  the 
apprentice  was  formed  no  longer  exists,  precisely  because  the 
professional  guilds  and  corporations  no  longer  have  any  legal 
existence  (in  France  owing  to  the  Chapelier  Act,  17  June,  1791), 
so  that  the  atmosphere  of  industry,  the  service  as  journey- 
man, and  the  permanent  guidance  and  advice  necessary  to 
the  pupil,  are  things  of  the  past.  The  Constituent  Assembly 


APPRENTICESHIP  185 

is  said  to  have  destroyed  for  ever  the  genuine  school  of 
technical  education. 

Again,  the  inevitable  increase  of  the  use  of  machinery  and 
mechanical  methods  is  blamed,  for  in  the  factory  or  workshop 
which  works  at  high  pressure  the  artisans,  labourers,  and 
apprentices  are  employed  each  upon  an  elementary  task  which 
forms  part  of  a  general  task ;  they  are  the  wheels  of  a 
mechanical  system  in  which  the  functions  are  not  to  any 
extent  interchangeable.  In  this  way  the  worker  is  familiar 
with  only  a  fragment  of  a  trade,  a  single  element  of  labour. 
It  is  impossible  for  him  to  grasp  his  calling  as  a  whole  ;  left 
to  himself,  apart  from  the  factory,  he  soon  realises  his  pro- 
found ignorance  ;  a  worker  in  a  watch-making  factory,  he 
does  not  know  how  to  make  a  watch  ;  a  shoemaker,  he  is 
incapable  of  making  a  slipper.  This  defect  is  real ;  it  is 
inherent  in  any  organisation  founded  upon  the  division  of 
labour ;  it  is  therefore  unavoidable. 

Finally,  it  is  said  that  the  relations  between  apprentices 
£nd  employers,  and  their  rights  and  duties,  are  ill  defined,  in 
the  absence  of  well  devised  laws  and  adequate  means  of  arbitra- 
tion. "  Properly  understood,"  writes  Beignet,  "  the  interest 
of  both  resides  in  the  rapprochement  of  the  two  social  entities, 
the  working  classes  and  the  employing  classes,  by  means  of 
professional  organisations."  l  But  this  solves  nothing,  and 
arbitration  or  agreement,  which  are  always  useful,  do  not 
modify  the  conditions  of  apprenticeship. 

In  France,  the  law  passed  on  the  22  February,  1851,  relating 
to  the  contract  of  apprenticeship,  or  indenture,  has  certainly 
accomplished  a  good  deal  in  this  connection  ;  it  compels  the 
master  to  teach  the  apprentice  the  whole  of  his  trade,  and  not  to 
•employ  him  upon  tasks  which  do  not  profit  him  in  the  matter 
of  instruction,  nor  upon  those  which  are  beyond  his  physical 
strength,  or  injurious  to  health  (Article  8).  "A  decision  of 
the  tribunal  of  Limoges,  dated  the  30  January,  1906,  basing 
itself  upon  the  Act  of  1851  and  Articles  1134  and  1137  of  the 
Civil  Code,  ratifies  the  right  of  the  parents  to  break  a  con- 
tract and  obtain  damages  for  the  time  lost  if  an  employer 

1  A.  Beinet,  La  Decadence  de  V apprentissage  en  France,  p.  18;   Angers,  1911. 


186          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

employs  an  apprentice  only  upon  a  portion  oi  the  work  of  his 
profession,  which  in  no  way  adds  to  his  personal  education. 
'  Here,'  declares  Dubief,  '  is  a  serious  guarantee,  a  really 
efficacious  protection.'  "  1 

The  law  of  1851  is  nevertheless  insufficient ;  although  it 
attacks  possible  abuses,  it  does  not  build  up  a  system  of  con- 
trolled education  ;  it  does  not  aim  at  the  improved  education 
of  the  apprentice,  and  it  does  not  adduce  any  element  of 
decision  as  to  the  revival  of  trade  organisations,  and  the 
defence  of  the  complete  craft  against  its  subdivision  by  machin- 
ery. To  legislate  is  not  to  organise. 

LXXXII.  Technical  Schools. — A  masterpiece  of  organisa- 
tion and  a  means  of  serious  control  was  the  creation  of  trade 
schools,  whose  essential  object  is  to  educate  and  instruct,  to 
form  the  mind  and  train  the  hand,  to  teach  all  the  elements, 
theoretical  and  practical,  of  the  trade  or  craft.  "  While  it  is 
true,"  said  Millerand,  "  that  in  a  few  weeks  a  labourer  can  learn 
to  operate  a  machine,  it  is  no  less  true,  and  profoundly  true, 
that  the  interest  of  national  production,  as  of  the  producer 
himself,  and  the  interest  of  the  country,  which  has  need  of 
an  educated  and  intelligent  race,  imperiously  demands  workers 
who  are  familiar  with  the  whole  of  their  calling  ;  who  possess 
sufficient  scientific  knowledge  to  understand  the  working  of  a 
machine,  to  repair  it,  and  at  need  to  invent  improvements." 
(Quoted  by  Dubief  :  loc.  cit.,  p.  41.) 

There  were  already  schools  of  apprenticeship  in  France, 
even  before  the  Revolution  ;  <ven  in  the  sixteenth  century  ; 
there  was  the  Maison  de  I' abbe  fitienne  de  Barbere,  founded 
in  1640,  in  the  Faubourg  Saint-Antoine  ;  and  the  Maison  de 
Trinite,  still  older,  in  the  district  of  Saint-Denis,  in  whose 
favour  a  royal  edict  of  1531  authorised  emplojers  to  take  two 
apprentices  in  place  of  one,  as  was  the  rule. 

These  establishments  recruited  orphans  more  particularly ; 
they  were  workshops  in  which  labour,  charity,  and  religion 
were  mingled  in  curious  proportions.  Ecclesiastics  managed 
them  ;  employers  or  master  craftsmen,  who  had  withdrawn 

1  F.  Dubief,  V  Apprentissage  et  V enseignement  technique,  p.  15,  Paris,  1910. 


APPRENTICESHIP 


187 


themselves  to  this  pious  environment,  provided  the  instruc- 
tion.    They  competed,  with  the  free  employers  and  in  the 


EIG.  64.— The  Stocking  Trade  (18th  century). 

To  the  left,  a  Stocking  Maker.      To  the  right,  a  Woman  working  the 
Lyons  Spinning-Jenny. 

shops,  for  the  favours  of  the  king  and  the  protection  of  the 
police. 


FIG.  65. — Workshop  of  a  Norman  Pin-maker  (18th  century). 

The  Workers  are  seated  before  glass  Screens,  which  safeguard  the  Eyes  from 

Dust  and  Filings. 

And  in  spite  of  this  precarious  situation  apprentices  were 
trained  in  these  workshops  who  made  "  shirts  of  mail  and 


188          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

brigantines,  which  are  conveyed  to  foreign  countries  ;  weavers 
who  make  the  old  style  of  gold  and  silk  laces,  and  others 
who  make  cloths  of  gold  and  silk  (Fig.  64)  ;  makers  of  pins 
and  needles  (Fig.  65) ;  purse-makers,  makers  of  cards  or 
combs  for  carding  ;  and  other  trades  practised  in  France."  1 

But  they  did  little  work  in  these  establishments,  in  order 
that  they  might  the  oftener  sing  psalms. 

The  intention  was  none  the  less  laudable  ;  and  I  recall  this 
attempt  in  order  to  show  that  the  training  of  the  apprentice 
should  be  purely  professional.  If  these  charitable  establish- 
ments had  some  excuse  for  giving  precedence  to  religious 
exercises,  the  corporations  of  those  days,  and  the  employers, 
committed  an  abuse  in  making  the  pupil  a  domestic  servant. 
"  The  apprentice  was  in  fact  the  chattel  of  the  employer," 
says  Dubief. 

The  schools,  on  the  other  hand,  give  the  apprentice  liberty, 
but  a  methodical  liberty.  The  Ministry  of  Commerce  has 
inbreathed  into  them  the  spirit  of  the  University  ;  not,  as 
Bourrey  justly  feared,2  in  order  to  confound  the  methods  of 
one  governmental  department  with  those  of  another,  nor  to 
allow  one  public  office  to  encroach  upon  another,  but,  beyond 
all  doubt,  the  better  to  foster  technical  education  ;  to  rekindle 
it  and  light  its  path  with  all  the  fires  of  human  knowledge. 
The  choice  of  teachers  is  a  guarantee  against  abuses  ;  it 
is  for  them  to  apportion  the  general  instruction,  without 
which  all  special  instruction  remains  obscure  and  limited  ; 
it  is  for  them  to  proportion  and  harmonise,  to  select  and 
adapt.  Such  should  be  the  spirit  of  the  curricula  of  these 
schools. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  in  France  80  primary  pro- 
fessional schools,3  of  which  fifteen  are  in  the  city  of  Paris. 
Private  schools  and  State  schools  together,  they  undertake 
the  instruction  of  25,000  pupils  ;  they  are  assisted  by  the 

1  M.  Fosseyeux,  Les  Maisons  d?  apprentissage  sous  Vancien  regime,  Paris,  1913. 

2  G.  Bourrey,  Le  Probleme  de  V apprentissage  et  V enseignsment  technique,  Paris, 
1913. 

3 1  take  these  figures  from  M.  Barbe,  La  question  de  F apprentissage  (Ligue 
franqaise  de  V enseignement) ,  Paris,  1913. 


APPRENTICESHIP  189 

Sociele  philotechnique  de  Paris  (7,568  pupils),  the  Societt  d'En- 
seignement  professionel  du  Rhone,  at  Lyons  (5,632  pupils),  and 
the  Corns  industriels  et  commerciaux  da  Nord,  the  offspring  of 
the  admirable  efforts  of  M.  Labbe  (4,730  pupils),  so  that 
125,000  young  people  are  receiving  the  sort  of  education  which 
is  of  use  to  them,  costing  the  budget  (in  1907)  7  million  francs 
(£280,000),  or  56  francs  (£2  5s.)  per  pupil.  However,  there 
remain  more  than  800,000  possible  pupils,  not  yet  18  years  of 
age,  who  can  find  no  place  in  these  centres  of  thought  and 
action.  The  partisans  of  trade  schools  accordingly  declare 
that  one  must  persevere  in  the  effort  and  consent  to  an  increased 
budgetary  expenditure.  But  what  is  the  character  of  the 
method  for  which  so  great  an  expansion  is  desired  ?  We  have, 
according  to  M.  Barbe,  "  the  introduction  of  the  workshop  into 
the  school,  the  intimate  union  of  theory  and  practice,  and  their 
collaboration  by  means  of  the  workshop  and  the  business  office, 
with  the  object  of  rendering  our  pupils  immediately  serviceable, 
on  leaving,  in  the  factory  or  the  warehouse  "  (Loc.  cit.,  p.  16). 
This  collaboration  is  not  effected  in  the  same  fashion  in  all 
countries.  In  Germany,  where  there  are  more  than  700,000 
pupils,  each  of  whom  costs  50  francs,  the  apprentice  schools, 
the  Fortbildungs-Schulen  (for  instance,  the  School  of  Mechanical 
Construction  at  Hagen,  in  Prussia,  with  240  pupils)j  are 
organised  in  such  a  way  as  to  complete  the  work  of  the  factory  ; 
but  the  latter  must  come  first,  and,  so  to  speak,  must  form  the 
young  worker.  The  trade  guilds  have  a  real  existence,  and 
the  wholly  practical  apprenticeship  which  they  give  is  necessary 
in  order  that  the  worker  may  obtain  the  authorisation  to 
practise  his  craft ;  and,  before  this,  in  order  that  he  may 
attend  the  classes  at  the  school.  The  training  of  the  body 
takes  precedence  of  the  training  of  the  mind  ;  and  economic 
needs  take  precedence  of  intellectual  needs.  The  German 
brain  is  a  wheel  in  the  German  industrial  system,  driven  by 
that  system  in  the  direction  and  at  the  speed  which  it  finds 
convenient.  The  schools  are  created  for  the  factories,  and 
they  increase  their  numbers  and  their  specialities  according 
to  the  local  needs.1  The  classes  are  graduated  and  selected 

^Curt  Kohlman,  Fabrikschulen,  p.  65-72,  Berlin,  1911. 


190          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

with  a  view  to  producing  intelligences  of  a  certain  given  orienta- 
tion, but  practical  instruction  always  comes  before  any  other, 
and  takes  up  more  of  the  apprentices'  time.  The  love  of  the 
useful  is  officially  stimulated  throughout  Germany. 

The  two  contrary  examples  of  France  and  Germany  are 
characteristic  of  the  complex  of  ideas  which  in  other 
countries  have  been  applied  with  numerous  variations  ;  the 
French  methods  have  been  applied  most  frequently,  and  the 
trade  school  of  the  French  type  assures  the  pupil  in  the  first 
place  of  a  general  technical  education,  without  losing  touch 
with  practice,  or  even  with  external  factories  and  workshops. 

To  sum  up,  the  present  condition  of  apprenticeship  is  this  : 
on  the  one  hand  the  Government  is  endeavouring  to  create 
an  organisation,  if  one  may  call  it  such,  of  which  it  has  hardly 
determined  the  plan  ;  the  industrial  world,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  animated  by  the  desire  for  agreement  and  action,  now 
following  the  light  of  economic  science,  now  halting  on  the 
threshold  of  social  reform.  Desires  and  intentions  are  here, 
generous  or  exacerbated,  but  they  are  dreams  which  vanish 
in  the  daylight  of  reality.  Apprenticeship  requires  a  scientific 
method  :  principles,  that  is,  which  leave  nothing  to  hazard, 
and  which  are  sufficient  in  themselves.  This  we  shall  endeavour 
briefly  to  explain  in  detail. 

LXXXIII.  The  Organisation  of  the  Apprentice  System. 

— The  organisation  of  apprenticeship  is  a  task  which  must 
be  undertaken  by  and  in  the  trade  school.  A  natural  pro- 
longation ot  the  primary  school,  it  receives  the  child  under  the 
conditions  most  favourable  for  teaching  him  a  trade.  By  the 
age  of  13  there  will  have  been  time  to  teach  him  the  elements 
of  his  own  language,  mathematics,  and  the  physical  and 
natural  sciences.  This  indispensable  knowledge  cannot  have 
created  in  him  a  vocation  of  any  kind.  He  is  therefore  fully 
prepared  to  receive  a  special  course  of  instruction,  a  theoretical 
and  practical  training,  devised  with  a  view  to  his  chosen  trade. 
I  would  say  that  a  theoretical  training  is  necessary;  it 
facilitates  apprenticeship,  by  explaining  it ;  it  sheds  its  light 
over  all  the  details  of  work,  revealing  its  defects  and  qualities, 


APPRENTICESHIP  191 

without  which  progress  would  be  slow,  and  the  finishing  touches 
difficult  or  impossible ;  above  all,  it  develops  the  spirit  of 
invention,  a  love  of  fine  workmanship,  and  a  deep-seated 
love  of  the  craft  or  profession.  Its  imprint  upon  the  mind 
of  the  worker  is  indelible  ;  and  the  worker,  no  less  than  the 
scientist,  rejoices  to  perceive  that  experience  responds  exactly 
to  the  predictions  of  theory,  and  that  genuine  art  is  governed 
by  geometry. 

In  modern  society  the  future  is  to  the  best  educated ;  no 
one,  I  trust,  would  now  repeat  the  heresy  of  Voltaire,  "  that 
only  one  pen  is  needed  for  two  or  three  hundred  hands."  Pens 
such  as  Voltaire's,  assuredly  ;  but  the  pens  of  the  workers 
must  be  innumerable.  And  when  the  lessons  of  science  are 
conceived  in  such  a  fashion  that  they  give  the  apprentice 
a  reasoned  knowledge  of  his  calling,  extend  his  horizon,  and 
refine  his  intelligence,  it  would  be  folly  to  dispute  their  prime 
utility.  There  is  no  example  of  a  workman  having  regretted 
these  lessons,  and  there  are  many  examples  to  the  contrary. 
Taylor,  from  being  a  mere  porter,  became  an  engineer  by  dint 
of  educating  himself,  by  paying  excellent  teachers.  I  would 
wager  that  he  would  rather  have  lost  his  immense  fortune  than 
his  theoretical  knowledge. 

The  lessons  which  the  child  has  conned  on  his  bench  at 
school  are  engraved  in  his  memory,  and  guide  him  all  his  life ; 
he  will  return  to  them,  will  consult  his  notes  or  text-books,  to 
correct  his  judgement  and  guide  his  actions,  for  he  has  tested 
this  teaching,  has  practised  it,  and  has  confidence  in  it.  How 
many  of  us  return,  at  times,  to  the  reading  of  old  lessons, 
piously  preserved,  and  rejoice  that  the  yellow  paper  still  speaks 
the  incomparable  language  of  our  masters  ! 

From  the  primary  school  to  the  trade  school  there  must  be 
continuity  along  the  paths  of  specialisation  and  gradation. 
The  nature  of  the  trade  determines  the  choice  of  subjects  to  be 
taught,  and  the  proportions  to  be  observed  among  these  sub- 
jects ;  the  apprentice  who  is  to  become  a  watchmaker  or  an 
instrument-maker  requires  a  better  knowledge  of  drawing,  more 
exact  science,  more  mensuration  ;  the  French  6cole  de  Cluses 
provides  an  admirable  example  of  this  mode  of  instruction. 


192         THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

But  it  will  be  realised  that  more  natural  science,  more  agri- 
cultural science,  and  more  chemistry — and  all  adapted  to  the 
local  needs — will  be  required  in  the  schools  which  prepare  the 
future  tillers  of  the  soil — that  soil  which,  owing  to  mistaken 
ideas,  is  only  too  often  deserted  by  our  workers.  It  is  not 
my  object  to  say  more  of  this  here  ;  I  leave  it  to  the  qualified 
teachers  to  tackle  the  prejudiced,  and  to  inculcate  another  love 
of  the  fields  and  harvests  than  that  expressed  in  the  Georgics. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  technical  school  produces  theorists  ; 
that  it  arrests  the  impulse  of  the  individual  mind.  This  is  a 
ridiculous  claim.  Those  who  slander  it  would  fain  be  theorists 
themselves  ;  knowledge  did  not  come  to  them  so  young,  and 
in  a  spirit  of  jealousy  and  vexation  they  protest  against  "  royal 
roads."  "  Toil  as  we  did  :  you  must  look  for  everything  to  the 
long  and  painful  experience  of  life,"  they  seem  to  say  to  these 
apprentices  of  fourteen  years.  These  reproaches  usually 
proceed  from  the  working-classes.  But  I  know  workers  who 
think  differently.  And  how  many  seek,  during  the  evening, 
to  acquire  a  few  rudiments  of  theory,  despite  the  fatigue  of  the 
day !  These  afford  a  sufficient  reply  to  the  others,  and  there 
is  no  appeal  against  their  verdict. 

As  for  the  individual  consciousness  and  initiative,  they  are 
imperfectly  developed  at  the  age  of  which  we  are  speaking; 
but  after  the  age  of  leaving  school  they  will  develop  normally, 
in  a  lucid  and  uniform  manner ;  life  will  very  soon  complete 
their  development.  I  have  already  explained  that  we  are 
brought  up  against  a  physiological  and  psychological  impos- 
sibility if  we  seek  to  transform  the  period  during  which  the 
human  mind  absorbs  into  a  period  of  restitution  and  creation  ; 
it  is  even  imprudent  to  seek  to  hasten  the  latter  too  far,  as 
Ostwald  has  many  times  warned  us.  For  nature  evolves  by 
slow  transitions  ;  if  her  movements  are  hurried  a  loss  of  vital 
force  results,  which  is  a  more  serious  affair  in  the  living 
organism  than  in  a  machine. 

I  claim,  moreover,  that  the  trade  school  has  a  twofold 
superiority  over  the  workshop,  whose  defenders  are  still 
numerous ;  I  mean,  of  course,  over  the  workshop  alone. 
Its  scientific  superiority  is  obvious.  The  workman,  while 


APPRENTICESHIP  193 

he  believes  that  he  is  teaching  the  apprentice  the  whole  of 
his  craft,  is  himself  making  no  progress.  From  worker  to 
worker  the  chain  is  prolonged  and  closed,  and  not  the  smallest 
link  of  science  is  added  to  it.  It  is  a  vicious  circle.  The 
horizon  is  confined  to  established  facts,  while  without  the 
skies  are  flooded  with  light.  The  teachers,  on  the  contrary, 
grow  more  learned  from  generation  to  generation ;  they 
play  their  part  continually  in  the  progress  of  the  world,  and 
their  pupils  profit  thereby.  Modern  industry  demands  this 
constant  development  of  the  education  given  to  the  workers. 
And  there  is,  moreover,  a  moral  superiority  to  be  obtained 
by  training  the  apprentice  in  the  schools,  which  is  all  the 
more  appreciable  in  that  we  are  dealing  with  children,  on 
whom  bad  examples,  and  unconsidered  words  and  actions, 
exert  a  more  pernicious  influence.  In  this  respect  I  cannot  do 
better  than  quote  the  remarks  made  by  Liebaut,  more  than 
thirty  years  ago,  in  a  report  read  before  the  Chambre  syndicate 
des  mecaniciens  :  "  Everyone  is  familiar,"  he  said,  "  with  the 
dismal  fruits  of  apprenticeship  in  the  workshop  ;  from  the 
educational  point  of  view  it  too  often  produces  idleness,  and 
an  unreflecting  and  almost  always  unjust  hatred  of  the 
employer,  the  foreman,  and  everyone  who  gives  orders  and 
has  the  right  to  expect  obedience,  together  with  disastrous 
habits  of  drunkenness  and  debauchery  ;  from  the  professional 
and  educational  point  of  view  the  apprenticeship  is  entirely 
lacking  in  method,  and  is  accomplished  only  in  a  spirit  of 
servile  imitation  and  routine." 

LXXXIV.  The  Technique  of  Apprenticeship. — In  order 
that  the  school  may  give  this  professional  instruction  as  a 
whole,  the  advantages  of  theoretical  education  and  the  environ- 
ment which  it  affords  the  apprentice  are  not  sufficient ;  it 
must  assure  him  of  the  practical  training  and  instruction 
which  is  offered  by  the  workshop  itself. 

The  practice  of  a  trade  or  craft  is  incontestably  an  art,  but 
art  is  always  the  expression  of  a  methodical,  disciplined  effort ; 
that  is,  of  a  science  which  has  its  own  laws.  The  arts  and 
crafts  are  applied  sciences,  whose  eternal  beauties,  in  bygone 


194          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

ages,  enchanted  the  imagination  to  such  a  point  that  it  erected 
them  into  Olympian  divinities.  The  worker  who  possesses 
an  absolute  grasp  of  his  craft  is  the  equal  of  the  scholar. 

The  principles  which  should  guide  the  practical  apprentice- 
ship are  of  a  physiological  and  mechanical  order.  In  the  first 
place,  the  teacher  will  carefully  examine  the  aptitudes  of  his 
pupil ;  he  will  not  leave  him  to  mope  at  the  lathe  if  he  will 
only  be  happy  when  handling  the  plough  ;  he  will  see  that 
weakly  subjects  do  not  adopt  callings  requiring  violent 
exertion  ;  all  the  factors,  in  a  word,  which  we  have  already 
defined  will  be  considered,  in  order  that  the  future  workers 
shall  be  well  equipped  when  they  begin  to  practise  their 
callings.  Here  the  intervention  of  the  teacher  will  be  of  the 
greatest  use  ;  he  will  advise  the  pupil's  parents,  and  place 
his  information  before  the  director  of  the  technical  school. 
This  information  should  be  entered  in  the  pupil's  school 
report-book  ;  it  will  help  to  illuminate  the  perceptions  of 
parents  and  teachers.  But  I  have  already  explained  how  far 
these  indications  should  receive  attention,  and  what  restric- 
tions should  always  be  applied  to  them.  Nevertheless,  they 
are  of  very  great  importance. 

The  apprentices  will  be  taught  what  hygienic  precautions 
they  should  take  to  safeguard  their  health,  according  to  the 
nature  of  their  work,  and  what  accidents  are  to  be  guarded 
against.  They  will  therefore  be  on  their  guard. 

They  will  be  provided  with  elementary  manuals  of  a  nature 
to  stimulate  their  love  of  their  craft,  to  make  them  take  a 
pride  in  it,  to  realise  its  nobility.  The  traditions  of  the  guilds 
and  unions  must  be  replaced  by  the  fruitful  ambition  to  become 
model  workers,  learned  in  their  craft,  following  and  even 
hastening  the  march  of  progress.  In  creating  this  state  of 
mind  we  shall  have  solved  the  whole  psychological  problem 
of  apprenticeship,  which  so  happily  completes  the  physiologi- 
cal problem. 

LXXXV.  The  Education  of  the  Movements. — But  we 
must  resort  to  the  graphic  method,  in  its  innumerable  applica- 
tions, as  I  have  explained  it  by  the  example  of  the  apprentice 


FIG.  66. 

Apprentice  (Fitter)  riling  Metal.      To  the  left,  the  Correct  Attitude ;   to  the 
right,  the  Incorrect.      (The  Sequence  of  the  Pictures  is  from  Top  to  Bottom.) 


196          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

using  the  file  (LI  1 1),  for  the  experimental  lessons  which  will 
instruct  and  discipline  the  young  worker,  and  will  fulfil,  better 
than  speech  or  writing,  the  office  of  correcting  the  beginner's 
faults,  correcting  his  mistakes,  and  securing  his  attention. 
Dynamographic  tracings,  which  can  easily  be  obtained  with  a 
little  ingenuity,  should  constantly  be  exhibited  to  the  pupils, 
so  that  they  may  judge  for  themselves  of  their  irregularity,  in 
the  case  of  a  beginner,  or  their  regularity  and  uniformity  in 
the  case  of  a  skilful  worker.  A  few  experiments  will  interest 
the  pupils  intensely,  arousing  their  always  lively  curiosity, 
and  teaching  them  the  full  value  of  the  facts.  As  they  progress 
in  the  technique  of  their  craft  they  will  discover  that  their 
movements  are  more  educated  in  quality,  and  better  adapted 
to  their  work. 

The  education  of  the  movements  is  necessary  in  order  to 
render  them  effective,  to  increase  their  output,  and  to  diminish 
fatigue.  The  number  and  rapidity  of  these  movements,  and  even 
the  effort  which  they  develop,  vary  according  to  the  individual, 
and  the  nature  of  his  work.  It  will  be  expedient  to  determine 
these  movements  in  the  case  of  model  workers,  highly  skilled 
in  their  craft,  and  to  explain  to  the  pupils  the  graphic  records 
of  normal  work.  Disorderly  and  useless  movements,  which 
inevitably  give  rise  to  premature  fatigue,  will  be  reproduced 
by  means  of  the  cinematograph,  exaggerating  them  if  need  be. 
Films  which  in  this  manner  display  the  awkwardness  of 
beginners,  of  the  infirm,  and  especially  of  those  who  have 
suffered  amputation,  and  are  provided  with  artificial  arms, 
will  be  of  considerable  value  for  purposes  of  apprenticeship 
and  re-education.  In  view  of  this  teaching  by  example  a 
few  characteristic  films,  relating  to  the  practice  of  the  principal 
handicrafts  (Fig.  66),  will  be  preserved  in  the  schools. 

The  conditions  of  apprenticeship  must  then  be  adjusted 
in  such  a  way  as  gradually  to  increase  the  output  to  its  maxi- 
mum limit,  while  the  workshop  must  be  so  organised  as  to 
reduce  loss  of  time  and  the  causes  of  fatigue  to  the  minimum. 
But  do  not  mistake  me.  The  object  of  economy  of  time  is  not 
merely  an  increased  production.  Before  all,  it  is  intended  to 
give  the  worker  habits  of  order,  and  to  confirm  the  idea  that  we 


APPRENTICESHIP  197 

should  be  more  useful,  to  others  as  to  ourselves,  if  we  avoided 
all  aimless  muscular  efforts,  if  we  kept  a  watch  upon  the  profit- 
able expenditure  of  our  physical  energies. 

From  these  methodical  conditions  of  work  a  greater  efficiency 
and  a  more  intensive  production  are  obviously  to  be  obtained. 

Under  such  conditions  the  rules  relating  to  rest  and  fatigue, 
periods  of  distraction  and  instruction,  and  the  continued 
duration  of  practical  lessons,  will  serve  to  protect  the  health. 

Whatever  the  trade,  it  is  the  duty  of  modern  apprentice- 
ship to  give  it  a  scientific  organisation,  to  select  and  form  the 
apprentices  according  to  their  aptitudes,  and  to  ensure  the 
normal  exercise  of  human  activity. 

LXXXVI.  Mechanical  Considerations — From  the  me- 
chanical point  of  view,  there  is,  as  we  have  observed,  a  certain 
effort  and  a  certain  pace,  which  are  conducive  to  the  largest 
output.  Once  more  it  is  the  graphic  method  which  reveals 
these,  thereby  informing  us  what  tasks  must  be  forbidden  to  the 
apprentice  if  his  age  or  strength  make  them  inadvisable.  The 
skill  of  a  worker's  movements  certainly  diminishes  fatigue  ; 
but  this  is  not  enough,  and  there  is  in  the  elementary  opera- 
tions of  labour,  the  wherewithal  to  occupy  every  worker 
usefully,  without  exceeding  the  sum  of  his  capacities. 

There  is  another  thing  to  be  considered  :  the  choice  of  tools 
should  be  adapted  not  only  to  the  nature  of  the  work,  but  also 
to  the  age  of  the  worker,  so  that  eventually  an  optimum 
equipment  may  be  put  together,  with  which  the  workshop 
will  provide  the  finished  worker.  At  the  close  of  his  apprentice- 
ship the  young  man  ought  to  be  practised  in  the  handling  of 
this  equipment,  in  respect  of  which  his  mind  has  been 
disciplined  as  well  as  his  body  ;  every  detail  of  the  practice  of 
his  craft,  every  form  of  mechanical  agency,  and  every  elemen- 
tary operation,  will  be  deeply  engraven  in  his  memory.  He 
will  not  be  made  to  study  one  portion  of  his  craft  until  the 
preceding  portion  has  been  learned,  and  until  he  can  practise 
it,  to  perfection.  To  exhibit  undue  haste  in  the  matter  of 
instruction  is  to  waste  time.  The  training  of  a  good  workman 
requires  several  years  ;  he  follows  many  masters,  endeavours 


198          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

to  profit  by  circumstances,  and  sticks  to  his  task  with  per- 
severance. The  part  of  science  is  to  diminish  the  period 
required  by  exclusive  practice  in  the  workshop. 

It  is  not  possible  for  the  apprentice  to  become  familiar  with 
all  the  operations  and  processes  of  the  workshop  or  factory. 
Modern  industry  does  not  demand  such  a  mental  effort ; 
which  would,  for  that  matter,  be  all  but  impossible. 

The  law  of  the  division  of  labour,  which  rules  the  living 
organism,  is  no  less  compulsive  in  the  industrial  organism, 
so  that  every  worker,  according  to  the  measure  of  his  capacities, 
fulfils  a  given  function,  and  has  no  need  to  understand  another. 
I  should,  however,  like  to  see  a  general  education  giving  the 
worker  a  general  conception  of  his  profession  ;  of  the  working 
of  the  successive  organs  of  transmission,  from  the  manager's 
office  to  the  work-bench  ;  so  that  he  would  not  be  launched 
into  the  life  of  action  which  lies  before  him  without  rudder 
or  compass.  It  is  evident  that  an  employer  who  applies  him- 
self to  one  single  speciality  will  be  incapable  of  giving  this 
complete  training.  The  industrial  college  is  therefore  the 
great  organiser  of  economic  prosperity,  provided  that  it 
proceeds  by  the  inculcation  of  theory  and  practice  both,  the 
latter  coming  after  theory. 

It  is  perhaps  as  well  to  remember  that  mathematics  and 
geometry,  indispensable  to  the  mechanic,  present  gaps  which 
only  experiment  is  able  to  fill.  For  example,  the  theory  of 
friction,  of  moving  bodies,  is  still  far  from  squaring  with  the 
practical  data,  owing  to  the  complexity  of  the  factors  which 
have  to  be  embraced  by  an  extremely  exact  science,  and  the 
physical  properties  of  bodies.  In  very  simple  terms  the 
teacher  will  explain  to  his  pupils  the  influence  of  physical 
factors,  such  as  the  temper  of  metals,  their  chemical  composition, 
resistance,  form,  etc.,  finding  inspiration  in  the  experimental 
work  performed  in  our  higher  schools  and  industrial  institutes. 
Facts  are  needed,  plenty  of  facts,  illumined  by  a  minimum  of 
science. 

The  suitable  arrangement  of  workshops  and  factories  and 
the  division  of  labour  will  enable  the  apprentice  to  apply  him- 
self to  repeating  the  same  detail  of  work  with  increasing  skill, 


APPRENTICESHIP  199 

with  a  greater  economy  of  time  and  effort ;  he  will  seek,  if  he  is 
intelligent,  to  adapt  himself  more  perfectly  to  the  conditions  of 
labour  whose  great  importance  has  been  proved  to  him.  I 
will  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  his  work  will  cost  him  less 
and  less  as  regards  the  effort  of  attention,  and  will  become 
almost  automatic.  The  worker  for  whom  the  execution  of 
a  task  is  thus  facilitated,  by  habit,  will  be  able  to  husband 
his  intellectual  efforts  for  fine  work,  for  the  delicate  manipula- 
tions that  unquestionably  make  the  reputation  of  a  factory. 
Quality  and  quantity  :  we  need  them  both,  despite  the 
scarcity  of  skilled  labour  and  the  incoherence  of  technical 
methods.  The  organisation  of  the  apprentice  system,  and 
of  workshops,  on  a  scientific  basis,  is  imposed  upon  us  by  our 
regard  for  our  future  and  our  reputation. 

LXXXVII.       The  Duration  of    Apprenticeship.       The 

Workshop. — The  duration  of  the  period  of  apprenticeship  is 
obviously  a  difficulty  and  a  source  of  misunderstanding. 
Formerly  people  were  lacking  in  the  sense  of  well-being ; 
permanent  poverty,  ignorance,  and  the  lack  of  liberty  had 
atrophied  it.  Work,  moreover,  was  ill-paid.  Further,  the 
majority  of  the  merchant  class  took  as  apprentices  their 
own  children,  who  succeeded  them  in  the  business.  A  regula- 
tion introduced  in  1673  provided  that  on  the  completion  of 
the  17th  year  the  period  of  apprenticeship  should  under 
these  conditions  be  regarded  as  completed.  The  father  was 
thus  assisted  in  his  task  by  his  children. 

But  when  it  was  necessary  to  indenture  the  apprentice 
with  a  master  the  family  no  longer  received  any  assistance  ; 
they  could  expect  nothing  from  their  children,  but  must 
endure  their  penury  until  the  end  of  the  term  of  apprentice- 
ship, which  lasted  from  three  to  eight  years. 

According  to  the  statutes  in  force  in  France,  the  period  of 
apprenticeship  was  as  follows  : 

Three  years  for  drapers  and  hose-makers,  grocers,  druggists, 
confectioners,  haberdashers,  and  jewellers. 

Four  years  for  apothecaries,  furriers,  ropemakers,  leather- 
dressers. 


200          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

Five  years  for  hosiers,  cloak-makers,  glovemakers. 

Eight  years  for  goldsmiths   and   silversmiths. 

Modern  methods  have  reduced  the  term  of  apprenticeship 
to  three  or  four  years.  With  scientific  organisation  this 
period  suffices  to  form  very  good  workmen. 

Now  the  apprentice  to-day  is  haunted  by  the  idea  of 
earning  money,  as  much  for  himself  as  for  his  parents.  He 
no  longer  understands  the  necessity  of  the  sacrifice  which  the 
learning  of  a  trade  requires  ;  he  is  too  young  to  understand  it, 
and  his  family  too  poor  to  support  it.  So  we  find  him  leaving 
his  employer  at  a  day's  notice  because  the  latter  does  not  pay 
him  enough,  or  does  not  regard  him  as  a  qualified  wage- 
earner.  This  desultory  apprenticeship  makes  the  worker  an 
outcast  and  degrades  his  profession. 

Until  our  industrial  colleges  are  able  to  open  their  doors 
to  all  our  young  workers,  the  employers  might  turn  out  good 
apprentices  provided  the  work  of  the  small  workshops  were 
more  under  control,  the  reciprocal  duties  of  masters  and 
apprentices  being  precisely  defined  ;  while  if  necessary  the 
apprentice  might  be  encouraged  by  rewards  of  a  material  or 
honorific  character.  But  whether  the  school  or  the  workshop 
is  in  question,  the  State  should  endeavour  to  assist  the  parents, 
by  agreement  with  the  local  authorities,  and  should  influence 
them  morally  through  the  medium  of  the  teachers.  It  should 
make  a  wide  appeal  to  the  experience  and  the  zeal  of  the 
manufacturers,  whom  I  should  like  to  see  upon  the  councils 
of  all  the  industrial  colleges.  And  when  the  apprentice  has 
completed  his  studies,  and  is  judged  worthy  of  being  a  workman, 
he  might  conveniently  be  subjected  to  a  year's  probation  in 
a  workshop.  In  this  direction  the  collaboration  of  our 
manufacturers  would  be  of  great  assistance.  The  proba- 
tioners would  make  excellent  workers  ;  in  the  factory,  above 
all,  they  would  learn  the  unavoidable  need  of  production  of 
the  economic  world,  and  the  demands  of  society  ;  they  would 
learn,  in  Taylor's  words,  "  that  one  cannot  sell  fine  speeches." 

LXXXVIII.  Social  Science  and  Industry.— This  lesson 
of  the  economic  life  of  a  country  ;  social  science  ;  the  psycho- 


APPRENTICESHIP  201 

physiological  knowledge  of  man :  of  these  the  pupils  of  our  great 
colleges  are  ignorant,  as  are  the  workers  trained  in  our  industrial 
colleges.  Both,  therefore,  should  be  re-broken  to  the  realities 
of  life  by  a  term  of  probation  in  the  factory.  "  Working 
elbow  to  elbow  with  a  greasy  mechanic,  with  a  workman 
ignorant  of  the  rules  of  grammar  and  a  stranger  to  all  the  forms 
of  politeness,  they  will  soon  be  compelled  to  recognise  the 
intellectual  acuteness  of  these  men.  ...  In  our  schools  the 
greater  part  of  the  time  is  devoted  to  the  properties  of  inani- 
mate materials.  .  .  .  Living  matter,  on  the  other  hand  .  .  . 
is  entirely  disregarded  ;  not  so  much  as  an  hour's  study  is 
devoted  to  it.  The  managers,  directors,  and  presidents  of  our 
great  companies  have  only  one  material  to  work  in  :  the  workers. 
The  pupils  of  our  colleges  will  find  that  the  whole  of  their 
lives  will  be  devoted  to  the  working  of  this  precious  raw 
material,  and  they  complete  their  studies  at  the  age  of  22, 
without  having  heard  it  mentioned."  x 

In  France,  after  half  a  century's  slumber,  we  are  returning 
to  the  science  of  man,  and  thanks  to  the  impulse  given  by  the 
Ministry  of  Labour,  and  above  all  by  M.  Leon  Bourgeois, 
nothing  that  concerns  the  worker  is  any  longer  indifferent  to 
us.  But  while  the  analytical  consideration  of  the  workers 
is  proceeding,  in  respect  of  their  hygienic  and  professional 
requirements,  and  while  their  well-being  is  progressing,  it 
has  become  a  matter  of  the  greatest  urgency  that  the  Ministry 
of  Commerce  should  assist  in  the  work  by  organising  apprentice- 
ship on  a  scientific  basis,  and  organising  it  in  the  schools. 
The  task  of  the  workshop  will  be  complementary.  Every- 
thing points  to  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers  as  the 
centre  which  should  co-ordinate  and  direct  the  indispensable 
undertaking  which  is  imposing  itself  upon  the  nation.  It 
combines  the  scientific  authority  and  the  industrial  power 
whose  isolated  action  would  be  a  national  disaster. 

And  around  it,  receiving  light  from  it,  numbers  of  schools 
must  be  added  to  those  that  already  exist.  In  Germany, 
in  the  city  of  Munich  alone  (it  contains  520,000  inhabitants), 
there  are  sixty  schools,  of  which  forty-eight  teach  commerce, 

1  F.  W.  Taylor,  Revue  de  la  metallurgie,  Vol.  II.,  p.  648,  1910. 


202         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

and  twelve  the  industrial  arts.  This  fact  alone  tells  the  State 
what  its  duty  is. 

There  is  truly  very  much  to  be  done,  of  which  these  modest 
pages  can  give  no  idea.  If  I  were  not  afraid  of  discouraging 
good  intentions,  I  should  subscribe  to  the  verdict  of  the  Ameri- 
can scientist,  Gilbreth  : 

"  The  present  system  of  apprenticeship  is  pitiable  and 
criminal,  considered  from  the  apprentice's  point  of  view  ;  it  is 
ridiculous  from  the  modern  point  of  view ;  and  there  are  no 
words  to  describe  its  futility  from  the  economic  point  of 
view."  l 

1  F.  Gilbreth,  Motion  Study,  p.  41,  1911. 


CHAPTER    IX 
LABOUR 

LXXXIX. — Labour  means  the  work  of  the  workers  ;  but 
it  is  also  used  to  signify  the  class  of  workers  as  a  whole,  or  the 
body  of  workers  engaged  upon  the  same  task.  There  is  a 
confusion  of  persons  with  the  thing,  so  obvious  is  it  to  the 
mind  that  there  can  be  no  useful  work,  nor  wealth,  nor  well- 
being  without  the  worker. 

Labour,  then,  is  the  instrument  of  economic  prosperity, 
and  for  this  reason  it  should  be  plentiful,  well-trained,  educated, 
and  directed  ably  and  with  art. 

In  France  labour  has  always  been  scarce  ;  to-day  it  has  paid 
the  country  a  very  heavy  contribution  ;  its  ranks  are  emptier 
than  ever.  Already  it  has  been  necessary  to  employ  Italian 
workers,  and  more  recently  Kabyles  and  Annamites.  In 
England  the  gaps  in  the  workers'  ranks  may  be  filled  suffi- 
ciently by  women,  but  in  France  these  levies  of  workers  from 
overseas  will  necessarily  be  more  frequent  henceforth,  and  I 
imagine  that  French  industry  would  utilise  the  entire  French 
and  colonial  contingent  rather  than  apply  to  our  neighbours. 
The  fact  is  that  this  problem  of  recruiting  labour  involves 
another  problem  of  very  great  importance,  that  of  the 
aptitudes  and  the  physiological  working  conditions  of  men 
belonging  to  many  races  and  hailing  from  other  climates 
than  ours.  Acclimatisation,  however,  has  not  hitherto 
formed  the  subject  of  any  exact  investigations  ;  one  may 
describe  it  as  abandoned  to  empiricism  all  the  world 
over. 


204          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

XC.  Italian  Labour. — I  shall  make  only  a  few  brief  remarks 
with  regard  to  Italian  labour.  As  workers  the  Italians  are 
incontestably  very  similar  to  the  French,  in  respect  of  their 
mental  characteristics  and  their  tendency  to  acquire  similar 
habits.  Their  life  has  evolved  in  the  same  world  of  ideas  and 
feelings.  By  race,  and  the  hereditary  influence  of  a  similar 
culture,  they  possess  elements  of  affinity  which  cement  them, 
more  closely  than  any  other  people,  to  our  social  edifice,  the 
joints  being  imperceptible. 

Better  still,  the  French  and  the  Italian  have  waged  wars  in 
common,  and  the  memories  of  common  glories  have,  so  to 
speak,  set  a  seal  upon  an  unwritten  pact  of  human  cordiality. 
There  have  never  been,  and  between  these  two  peoples  there 
will  never  be,  any  of  those  "  vigorous  hatreds  "  which  we  feel 
for  races  whose  evolution  has  been  abnormal. 

Still,  the  Italian,  even  in  Italy  and  the  southern  climates  to 
which  he  willingly  emigrates,  lacks  energy  ;  he  works  intelli- 
gently, but  with  a  certain  heedlessness  ;  he  does  not  display 
the  continuity  of  effort  which  our  modern  industries  require  ; 
he  proceeds  by  fits  and  starts,  husbanding  his  resources  of 
energy  far  more  than  does  the  French  worker. 

Usually,  when  he  emigrates,  he  lives  in  a  modest  fashion  ; 
he  is  never  a  feverish  worker,  but  he  begins  early  in  the  morning 
and  ceases  late  in  the  afternoon.  The  modern  system  of  the 
organisation  of  labour,  which  requires  a  minimum  of  attendance 
in  the  workshop  and  a  maximum  of  production,  would  therefore 
be  difficult  to  apply  to  the  Italian  worker.  This  is  an  import- 
ant point,  which  requires  examination.  My  attention  was 
drawn  to  it  in  the  course  of  a  scientific  mission,  with  which  I 
was  entrusted  when  in  Italy,  in  1907. 

And  for  this  reason,  I  do  not  absolutely  accept  the  doctrine 
of  the  eminent  Italian  sociologist  Cabrini,  who  wrote  in 
1916 »: 

"  Italy  is  proud  to  collaborate  in  the  development  of  French 
industry,  by  pro\iding  it  with  the  complementary  labour 
which  it  lacks,  and  which  we  possess  to  excess.  Assuredly 
the  victory  of  the  Entente  will  arouse  in  Italy  a  wonderful 

1  See  Le  Journal,  1  June,  1916. 


LABOUR  205 

industrial  development.  But  for  a  long  time  yet  a  large 
number  of  workers  will  continue  to  emigrate. 

"  We  shall  gladly  see  our  compatriots  turning  toward  a 
nation  speaking  the  Latin  tongue,  whose  temperament  is 
fraternal ;  to  France,  our  ally  in  mind,  heart,  and  political 
thought.  Emigration  in  Europe  is  a  far  more  temporary 
business  than  emigration  to  America ;  for  these  emigrants 
their  native  country  is  close  at  hand. 

"  However,  France  and  Italy,  nations  which  are  essentially 
democratic,  must  discipline  the  movement.  It  is  in  your 
interest  not  to  receive  workers  who  might  lower  the  rate  of 
wages.  We  do  not  wish  to  send  you  countrymen  of  ours 
who  might  play  the  part  of  blacklegs. 

"  The  French  State  has  duties  to  fulfil  in  respect  of  its 
proletariat,  which,  having  suffered  unheard-of  sacrifices, 
remains  the  admiration  of  the  world.  The  road  must 
not  be  barred  against  those  who  return  from  the  trenches. 
France  could  never  permit  of  the  importation  of  mendicant 
labour. 

"  The  old  theory,  which  declared  that  the  money  sent  home 
by  the  emigrants  is  always  welcome,  whatever  humiliation 
it  may  conceal,  is  exploded.  Even  the  Government  is  dis- 
carding it. 

"It  is  important,  therefore,  to  lay  down  clearly  defined 
conditions  on  either  side.  In  so  doing,  we  shall  confirm 
the  alliance  sealed  by  our  arms,  both  in  duration  and  in 
strength.  Thus  the  necessity  of  a  labour  contract,  such  as 
Luzzati  proposed,  becomes  apparent.  The  emigration  treaty, 
understood  as  a  labour  contract,  may  be  summarised  as 
follows  : 

"1.  The  Italian  worker  in  France  must  enjoy  the  same 
liberties  as  the  French  worker. 

"2.  In  any  trade  union  dispute,  he  must  not  be  expelled 
until  the  recognised  authorities  have  delivered  judgement. 

"  3.  Any  engagement  entered  into  by  French  manufacturers 
must  take  the  form  of  a  common  agreement  between  the 
Government  and  the  trade  organisations  of  capital  and 
labour." 


206         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

XCI.  Wages. — Whatever  the  character  of  this  foreign 
participation  in  the  economic  work  of  France,  it  is  none  the 
less  true  that  the  supply  of  workers  has  seriously  diminished, 
and  that  there  will  be  an  ever-increasing  demand  for  machinery, 
in  industry,  commerce,  and  agriculture.  The  inanimate 
motor  will  continually  encroach  upon  the  domain  of  the 
living  motor ;  mechanical  cultivation  will  impose  its  laws 
upon  the  peasantry ;  in  factory  and  workshop  the  machine- 
tool  will  reign  as  a  sovereign.  And  in  order  to  direct  and 
control  all  these  blind  and  indefatigable  forces  the  worker 
will  be  compelled  to  specialise,  to  add  to  his  education,  to 
sharpen  his  intelligence.  If  apprenticeship  does  not  come 
to  his  aid,  by  adapting  him  to  this  delicate  task,  he  will  require 
a  long  time  to  get  used  to  it ;  his  output  will  be  indifferent, 
and  his  wages  low.  For  as  the  employment  of  machinery 
and  mechanical  procedures  progresses,  greater  capacities  will  be 
required  of  our  workers,  and  selection  will  eliminate  a  consid- 
erable mass  of  waste  labour.  An  example  of  the  improvement 
which  will  be  required  of  labour  is  afforded  by  the  professions 
themselves  :  machinists,  watchmakers,  electricians,  and  crafts- 
men are  intelligent,  adroit,  and  expert.  They  would  be  still 
further  raised  in  the  social  scale  if  their  apprenticeship  were 
organised  in  the  manner  already  explained. 

This  is  far  from  being  the  condition  of  the  bulk  of  the  workers. 
There  are  those  who  labour  strenuously  and  earn  little.  This 
is  inevitable  ;  one  cannot  prevent  ignorance  from  causing 
poverty.  Now  more  than  ever  men  grasp  the  fact  that  they 
have  a  right  to  live,  and  to  live  a  life  that  is  not  a  series  of 
hardships  and  privations.  The  problem  of  wages,  which 
comprises  many  very  complex  factors,  must  not  disregard 
this  claim,  must  not  confine  itself  to  questions  of  output. 
Wages  do  not  requite  an  organism  whose  needs  are  regulated 
solely  by  the  amount  of  work  done,  as  is  the  case  with  a  steam- 
engine,  for  example.  The  livelihood  of  the  worker  must  be 
guaranteed  on  a  liberal  scale  ;  and  by  his  livelihood  we  mean 
the  cost  of  his  food,  even  when  he  is  not  at  work,  during  periods 
of  rest,  and  holidays,  and  involuntary  unemployment ;  the 
maintenance  of  his  health,  by  means  of  hygienic  home  condi- 


LABOUR  207 

tions,  lodgings,  clothing,  etc.,  and  the  maintenance  of  the 
race  by  means  of  social  hygiene.  I  say  that  wages,  in  the 
case  of  every  worker  worthy  of  the  name,  must  not  be  allowed 
to  fall  below  a  certain  limit,  or  the  worker  becomes  the  victim 
of  inhumanity.  And  I  declare  that  whenever  a  man  cannot 
find  a  means  of  livelihood  it  is  society  alone  that  is  to  blame. 
There  is  in  the  division  of  labour  a  scientific  solution  of  the 
problem  of  occupying  every  one  on  the  work  that  best  suits 
him.  And  there  are  so  many  developments  possible  to 
human  activity  that  every  worker  ought  to  find  his  niche 
without  delay.  By  what  aberration  do  we  come  to  have 
strikes,  when  there  are  rational  means  of  solving  the  conflicts 
between  capital  and  labour  ?  Strikes  injure  production,  and 
inconvenience  employers  and  workers  alike.  They  will 
disappear  before  an  organisation  which  neglects  none  of  the 
material  and  moral  needs  of  the  workers,  and  when  the  laws 
have  ceased  to  be  weapons  that  have  no  edge. 

XCII.  French  Labour. — Everything  that  can  be  said  con- 
cerning French  labour,  or  almost  everything,  has  been  said, 
and  admirably  said,  by  the  French  economists.  It  possesses 
in  its  own  right  the  spirit  of  enterprise  which  enables  it  to 
invent,  to  perfect,  and  to  love  progress  ;  its  predominant 
quality,  as  is  universally  recognised,  is  its  love  of  good  work- 
manship, of  accuracy  ;  routine  is  repugnant  to  it,  as  soon 
as  its  defects  are  understood.  This  intelligence  is  less  deve- 
loped among  the  tillers  of  the  soil,  who  are  more  addicted  to 
routine.  The  French  worker  readily  assimilates  new  ideas, 
all  the  more  rapidly  as  they  appeal  to  his  curiosity  or  appear 
acceptable.  But  his  temperament  is  impulsive.  Not  having 
enjoyed  a  protracted  education,  and  being  ignorant  of  method, 
he  likes  to  dabble  in  everything,  without  going  deeply  into 
anything.  This  defect  is  balanced  by  the  qualities  we  have 
mentioned,  but  it  is  none  the  less  a  real  defect.  For  all 
these  reasons  the  French  schools,  whether  in  town  or  country, 
should  undertake  to  direct  and  favour  the  exercise  of  the 
national  virtues  in  the  worker  from  childhood,  instruct- 
ing the  young  in  all  the  elements  of  their  craft,  plainly 


208 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


demonstrating  the  advantages  of  the  modern  methods  of  labour 
over  the  ancient,  and  of  science  over  empiricism.  Like  the 
artisan,  the  peasant  also  needs  the  collaboration  of  an  improved 
technique  with  his  customary  methods  of  procedure.  This 
might  usefully  associate  the  activities  of  his  wife  and  children 
with  his  own.  This  would  result  in  the  something  resembling 
the  old  life  of  the  countryside  ;  but  the  old  life  modernised, 
made  fruitful  and  productive  (Fig.  67). 


FIG.  67. — Tilling  the  Soil  in  the  18th  Century. 


The  protection  of  the  race  necessitates  further  measures  ; 
workshops,  factories,  foundries  will  be  so  conditioned  that 
none  of  the  rights  of  hygiene  are  disregarded  therein.  Notices 
will  be  posted  up  which  will  teach  the  workers  the  precautions 
to  be  taken  against  possible  causes  of  contagion  or  poisoning, 
and  the  immense  advantages  of  a  rational  diet,  in  conformity 
with  the  principles  which  we  have  already  expounded. 

It  is  obvious  that  this  is  rather  the  mission  of  the  labour 
inspectors,  or  factory  inspectors  ;  a  mission  which  requires 


LABOUR  209 

tact  and  competence,  and  which  might  be  simplified  by  the 
organisation  of  evening  lectures  on  the  hygiene  of  labour,  at 
which  only  experimental  instruction  would  be  given.  Learned 
verbiage  is  the  worst  of  all  verbiage  ;  it  drives  men  away 
from  the  truth. 

Lastly,  the  French  worker  is  lacking  in  the  spirit  of 
colonisation.  This  is  probably  a  result  of  national  prosperity 
and  the  Gallic  "  sociability."  Social  customs,  the  spirit  of 
comradeship,  and  mental  inertia  keep  the  Frenchman  at 
home  ;  but  the  man  who  is  always  self-contained  escapes  this 
attractive  force  ;  at  home  or  elsewhere,  he  remains  the  same. 
It  would  be  as  well  that  the  true  French  craftsman  should 
to  some  extent  migrate  to  the  colonies,  to  assist  in  their 
economic  conquest,  in  the  first  place  directly,  and  by  setting 
a  living  example  ;  but  also  by  training  the  native  craftsman, 
for  the  colonial  workers  are  numerous  and  of  indifferent 
quality. 

The  worker  who  repairs  to  the  colonies  requires  experience 
of  the  native  world  and  a  knowledge  of  the  native  environment. 
Further  on  we  shall  consider  the  subject  of  the  native  workman 
and  his  physiological  endurance.  But  all  that  concerns  the 
environment,  that  is,  the  temperature,  the  effects  of  the  sun, 
and  the  extreme  humidity  of  the  African  regions  over  which 
float  the  French  colours,  together  with  all  that  relates  to  the 
diet  suited  to  the  colonies,  and  the  nature  of  colonial  life, 
deserves  the  fullest  consideration.  I  can  only  refer  the 
reader  to  my  volume  on  Le  Moteur  Humain  (Book  IV.), 
and  to  the  few  following  pages.  From  a  practical  point  of 
view  it  is  necessary  to  insist  on  the  necessity  of  moderating 
the  worker's  activity,  and  the  expenditure  of  energy  corre- 
sponding thereto  ;  of  working  at  a  slower  pace  than  in  Euro- 
pean countries  ;  of  beginning  work  early,  and  ceasing  work 
late,  in  order  to  profit  by  the  hours  during  which  the  heat 
is  not  at  its  maximum  intensity ;  in  short,  of  making  up  in 
duration  what  one  is  obliged  to  lose  in  the  matter  of  effort. 
The  meals  must  include  a  smaller  quantity  of  meat,  and  alcoholic 
drinks  must  be  forbidden,  under  penalty  of  falling  a  victim 
to  all  sorts  of  possible  infections,  and  of  permanently  impairing 


210          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

the  resistance  of  the  organism.  I  attribute  to  excessive 
labour  and  the  reckless  consumption  of  brandy  the  heavy 
death-rate  of  the  workers  who  were  employed  in  Madagascar 
to  build  the  Majunga  railway. 

Moreover,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  European  worker  to  direct 
native  labour,  which  is  naturally  adapted  to  fatiguing  kinds 
of  work,  which  will  not  tax  the  native's  endurance  as  greatly 
as  it  would  ours  ;  and  also  to  learn  to  drive  and  control  the 
industrial  machinery  entrusted  to  him  by  the  colonist.  Very 
soon  there  will  no  longer  be  a  single  factory  or  agricultural 
exploitation  without  a  thorough  mechanical  equipment. 
We  should  therefore  train  the  minds  of  our  workers  ;  they 
themselves  will  look  after  their  muscles. 

The  Frenchman  who  repairs  to  the  colonies  must  abandon 
some  of  his  European  customs,  and  replace  them  to  some 
extent  by  native  customs,  particularly  in  respect  of  food, 
clothing,  and  housing,  of  which  we  shall  say  more  directly. 
Otherwise  the  sudden  variations  of  temperature  will  soon 
impair  his  health,  having  first  diminished  his  capacity  for 
work.  The  period  required  for  acclimatisation  is  from  three 
to  four  years,  if  one  leads  a  regular  life,  avoiding  overwork 
and  intemperance.  In  the  case  of  Europeans  resident  in 
Sumatra,  where  the  mean  temperature  averages  80-6°  all  the 
year  round,  Glogner  gives  4  years  as  the  period  of  acclimatisa- 
tion. But  it  must  be  added  that  the  previous  condition  of 
the  subject,  his  age,  and  his  position,  modify  this  figure. 
Above  all  it  is  important  to  respect  the  cellular  habit  in  respect 
of  the  work  of  producing  energy.  Physiological  phenomena 
do  not  lend  themselves  to  sudden  changes  ;  they  demand  a 
slow  transition,  a  gradual  training.  I  will  remind  the  reader, 
in  this  connection,  that  the  principal  factor  of  the  physical 
depreciation  of  the  French  troops  sent  out  to  the  colonies  is 
the  defective  training  of  the  cellular  vitality.  Even  Coulomb 
had  observed  the  low  output  of  European  troops  in  the  colonies. 
"  I  have  caused,"  he  says,  "  extensive  works  to  be  carried 
out  by  French  troops  in  Martinique,  where  the  thermometer 
is  seldom  below  68°  (to  be  precise,  77°).  I  have  caused  the 
same  work  to  be  performed  by  soldiers  in  France,  and  I  can 


LABOUR  211 

assert  that  here,  under  the  14th  degree  of  latitude,  where  the 
men  are  almost  always  inundated  with  perspiration,  they  are 
not  capable  of  half  the  amount  of  daily  work  which  they  can 
perform  in  our  climate."  I  therefore  persist  in  upholding 
the  idea  that  European  workers  should  content  themselves 
with  supervising  and  organising  native  labour.  This  latter 
is  adapted  to  the  environment,  and  Europeans  can  never 
replace  it  without  danger  at  a  moment  when  all  European 
countries  are  demanding  the  full  activity  of  their  citizens  in 
order  to  effect  their  economic  recovery  from  the  war. 

XCIII.  Native  Labour. — In  view  of  this  recovery,  it  has 
been  suggested  that  the  army  of  French  workers  should 
be  reinforced  by  levies  of  the  natives  of  Africa,  and  more 
particularly  of  the  Kabyles.  These  latter  are  French  subjects. 
For  this  reason  to  begin  with,  and  also  because  of  the  services 
they  might  render,  they  merit  especial  attention.  They  have 
too  often  been  observed  from  the  outside,  through  the  veil  of 
literature,1  in  the  wondering  recitals  of  lovers  of  the  picturesque, 
and  of  late  in  the  splendour  of  heroism.  We  must  also 
contrive  to  see  them  from  the  inside,  under  all  the  aspects 
of  their  moral  and  material  life,  and  by  the  light  of  their 
traditions.  To  become  acquainted  with  them  thus  is,  to 
my  mind,  to  confer  a  benefit  upon  them,  for  they  gain  upon 
acquaintance. 

The  scientific  study  of  the  Arabs  occupied  me  from  1907  to 
1909,  when  I  undertook  an  official  mission  in  the  north  of 
Africa.  I  inquired  into  the  conditions  of  their  work,  their 
strength,  and  their  productive  capacity.  My  numerous  experi- 
ments tended  to  emphasise  the  influence  of  alimentation, 
temperature,  and  solar  radiation.  I  endeavoured  to  throw 
some  light  upon  the  social  and  military  problem,  no  less 
than  upon  the  physiological  problem,  for  there  was  then 
much  discussion  of  M.  Messimy's  interesting  proposal  for 
native  conscription.  I  will  here  summarise  my  observa- 

1  An  excellent  example  will  be  found  in  the  article  by  Charles  Geniaux,  Scenes 
de  la  vie  kabyle  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  15  April,  1916,  p.  S20). 


212         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

tions,  which  are  scattered  through  ministerial  reports,  which 
the  dust  of  the  archives  has  not  defiled,  or  in  technical 
publications.1 

XCIV. — Technical     and      Social     Considerations. — The 

Kabyles. — The  Arab  populations  owe  to  their  common  Musul- 
man  religion  the  power  of  the  traditions  which  govern  them  ;  it 
constitutes  a  powerful  bond  between  very  different  races,  at  all 
events  between  those  which  inhabit  the  Mediterranean  sea- 
board. The  Arab  mind  is  wholly  enveloped  and  penetrated 
by  the  religious  atmosphere.  It  takes  refuge  in  a  past,  which 
is  in  truth  full  of  glory  and  splendour. 

I  shall  speak  in  these  pages  of  the  Kabyle  population 
exclusively.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  world  of 
labour.  One  encounters  the  Kabyles  in  the  eastern  portion 
of  the  department  of  Algiers,  in  the  department  of  Constan- 
tine,  and  in  various  parts  of  western  Africa,  above  all  in 
Morocco. 

From  the  ethnical  point  of  view  we  find  that  there  is  mention 
in  the  Egyptian  annals  of  a  Lybian  people,  living  to  the  west 
of  Egypt ;  an  autocthonous  people,  of  a  fair-haired  type. 
A  papyrus  dating  from  3,000  years  before  Christ  calls  this 
people  Tamahou.  I  do  not  know  what  this  evidence  is  worth  ; 
but  in  the  time  of  the  rivalry  between  Rome  and  Carthage, 
there  was  certainly  a  kingdom  of  Numidia,  inhabited  by 
Berbers,  where  the  Kabyles  are  found  to-day.  Were  these 
Berbers  the  descendants  of  a  few  Phoenician  emigrants,  con- 
temporaries of  the  founders  of  Carthage  ?  Would  they 
thus  be  of  Semitic  stock  ?  Their  type  distinguishes  them 
from  the  Arabs,  who  were  late-comers  in  the  north  of  Africa. 
And  they  have  at  present  no  recognisable  kinsmen.  They 
are  the  images  of  an  original  which  has  disappeared. 

When  Rome  had  defeated  Carthage  she  appointed  her  own 
ally,  Massinissa,  king  of  all  Numidia,  with  Cirta  or  Constantine 
for  its  capital.  However,  the  instinct  of  liberty  won  the  upper 
hand,  and  the  Roman  yoke  seemed  too  heavy  to  the  son  of 

1  Jules  Amar,  Le  Moteur  Humain,  Book  VI,  Paris,  1914  ;  LeRendement  de  la 
machine  humaine,  Paris,  1910  (out  of  print). 


LABOUR  213 

Massinissa,  Prince  Jugurtha.  The  fiery  Ntimidian  horsemen — 
Numidae  infraeni  czngwn/— revolted,  and  Marius  had  to  fight 
the  army  of  Jugurtha,  which  he  crushed.  In  the  year  106  B.C. 
he  challenged  him,  and  cast  him  into  prison.  The  soul  of  the 
Berbers  was  unconquered ;  the  purity  of  the  race  was  not 
impaired  ;  for  no  one  can  claim  to  rediscover  in  the  Kabyles 
of  Djudjura  the  well-known  features  of  the  Romans,  whether 
physical  or  moral. 

There  were  renewed  assaults  and  revolts  in  Numidia,  when 
the  torrent  of  Arab  invasion  went  by,  about  the  year  646  A.D. 
A  Berber  Joan  of  Arc  opposed  herself  to  the  invader ;  the 
Kahina  organised  the  defensive,  and  won,  if  not  the  indepen- 
dence of  her  native  country,  at  least  the  admiration  of  history 
and  the  laurels  of  legend. 

Then,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  came  the  Turks,  whose 
domination  ended  with  the  advent  of  the  French.  We  will 
not  insist  upon  events  which  would  not  in  any  case  elucidate 
the  mysterious  past  of  the  Kabyles,  and,  more  generally,  of 
the  Berbers.  What  survives  from  this  past  is  the  human 
type  with  its  individual  characteristics — the  Kabyle,  with 
his  intrinsic  qualities,  which  are  those  we  wish  to  consider. 
And  as  the  Kabyle  is  found  in  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Morocco, 
it  is  as  well  to  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  him,  and  to 
lay  bare  his  thoughts  and  feelings.  Ethnography,  in  this 
connection,  becomes  a  valuable  means  of  civilisation. 

It  is  therefore  not  surprising  to  learn  that  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment has  appointed,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  colonisation  of 
Lybia,  a  commission  of  specialists  whose  office  it  is  to  analyse 
all  the  psychological,  physiological,  and  ethnographical  ele- 
ments, which  will  assist  the  work  of  penetration.1  I  do  not 
know  what  organisation  guarantees  the  success  of  the  French 
in  Morocco  ;  but  we  should  have  everything  in  our  favour 
that  makes  for  success.  By  collaboration  and  agreement 
with  our  Italian  neighbours  we  should  bring  to  bear  upon  Africa 
a  progressive  influence  without  example  in  the  history  of  the 
world. 

1  S.  Ottolenghi,  Nuova  Antologia,  1  May,  1914. 


214         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

XCV.  The  Life  of  the  Kabyles.— Let  us  return  to  the 
Kabyles.  They  are  almost  all  industrious  folk  ;  they  are 
always  busy,  either  in  trade  or  agriculture.  They  work  with 
zeal  and  intelligence,  and  the  other  races  of  Africa  find  them 
formidable  competitors.  I  should  be  inclined  to  compare 
them  with  the  Mozabites,  a  Saharan  population,  equally  wide- 
awake mentally,  and  undeniably  a  mercantile  people,  whose 
ethnical  origin  is  no  less  of  a  riddle.  These  Mozabites  are 
disseminated  through  Algeria  and  Tunis  ;  everywhere  they 
assimilate  themselves  to  the  inhabitants,  and  by  their  unusual 
diligence  make  a  living  out  of  the  latter. 

The  Kabyles  generally  live  in  groups  ;  they  have  retained 
their  ancient  manners,  which  might  be  called  Biblical,  in 
the  sense  that  their  constitution  recalls  the  period  when  Moses 
divided  an  unformed  people  into  tribes,  and  gave  these  tribes 
a  patriarchal  constitution.  The  old  organisation  has  not 
been  forgotten  :  the  groups  of  ten,  a  hundred,  and  a  thousand 
inhabitants  having  councils  and  judges,  so  that  the  higher 
authorities  synthetised  the  lower,  and  the  least  hamlet  was 
reflected  in  the  commune,  and  this  in  the  town.  I  found 
these  federations,  these  super-imposed  assemblies,  these 
Councils  of  Ancients,  and  this  family  influence,  the  survivals 
of  remote  antiquity,  in  the  organisation  of  the  Berbers.  And 
this  again  confirmed  me  in  the  hypothesis — I  do  not  say  the 
certainty — that  the  Kabyles  are  of  Phoenician  origin. 

Down  to  the  tenth  levied  on  the  grain,  and  the  hundredth 
on  the  flocks  and  herds  ;  the  assertion  of  the  relations  of 
master  and  slave  as  between  man  and  wife — but  of  a  gentle 
and  courteous  slavery ;  the  hospitality  shown  to  the  poor 
man  and  the  stranger ;  the  respect  for  the  oath,  and  the 
keen  sense  of  honour — all  the  features  of  life  reproduce 
the  existence  of  which  the  Scriptures  give  us  a  detailed 
narrative. 

Here  we  have  even  the  explanation  of  the  sedentary  life 
of  the  Kabyles,  and  their  love  of  their  native  country  and  their 
homes — as  long  as  they  can  find  the  means  of  livelihood  close 
at  hand.  If  they  cannot,  they  leave  their  thatched  houses, 
and  descend  from  their  hilltops,  abandoning  -  an  ungrateful 


LABOUR  215 

soil  and  its  wasted  fields.  They  repair  to  the  cities,  where 
their  labour  is  well  paid  and  highly  valued  ;  they  work  by 
the  piece  or  by  the  day;  they  are  economical,  honest,  and 
industrious. 

Spending  little,  they  quickly  attain  a  comparatively  inde- 
pendent position,  becoming  small  traders  or  shopkeepers, 
and  succeeding  in  the  majority  of  trades. 

They  are  not  mere  tillers  of  the  soil  who  are  lost  when 
they  quit  the  furrow.  On  the  contrary,  they  love  the  handi- 
crafts and  arts,  and  display  a  certain  skill  in  them.  These 
industrious  folk  are  no  less  at  home  before  the  loom  or  the 
embroidering  machine  than  between  the  handles  of  the  plough. 
Industrial  training  would  make  them  model  artisans,  such  as 
will  not  be  found  among  their  Arab  co-religionists.  For  they 
are  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  their  horror  of  idleness, 
and  the  poverty  which  it  engenders,  and  they  are  not  super- 
stitious, nor  absolute  fatalists  ;  above  all,  they  possess  a 
prouder  sense  of  their  own  dignity  and  liberty. 

One  feels  that  they  are  the  true  natives,  the  autochthonous 
inhabitants,  lost  in  the  midst  of  the  human  forest  which  has 
grown  up  around  them.  Their  patriotism  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  religious  fanaticism.  I  have  often  been  assured, 
and  I  have  been  enabled  to  convince  myself,  that  faith  does 
not  remove  mountains  in  the  Kabyle  country. 

To  sum  up,  the  Berbers  in  general  are,  in  my  opinion,  an 
industrious  people,  united  and  actuated  by  interest  and  honour 
— which  is  not  really  a  contradictory  statement.  They  are 
dominated  by  a  fervent  sense  of  the  family.  They  are  ready 
to  make  sacrifices,  and  to  undertake  any  profitable  venture 
far  or  near  ;  in  short,  they  possess  the  qualities  of  good  work- 
men. And  when  they  have  saved  some  money  they  return 
to  their  own  country,  resume  the  interrupted  life  of  tradi- 
tion, and  beside  the  rekindled  hearth,  under  their  own 
friendly  skies,  pursue  their  diligent  labours  as  shopkeepers  or 
agriculturists. 

Kabylia,  then,  has  preserved  the  manners  of  its  ancestors, 
who,  in  the  famous  days  of  the  Roman  Republic,  created  the 
economic  prosperity  of  the  Numidian  and  Carthaginian 


216         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

territories.  This  is  one  reason  why  the  Italians  hope  for 
their  own  part  to  profit  by  their  settlement  of  the  Lybian 
region.  In  matters  of  colonisation  the  past  is  the  teacher  and 
ruler  of  the  future. 

XCVI.  I.  Anthropological  Data. — The  stature  of  the  Kabyle 
is  slightly  above  the  average.  Taking  800  Berbers,  my  measure- 
ments gave  me  an  average  of  5  ft.  6  in.,  the  average  height  of 
the  Frenchman  being  barely  5  ft.  5  in. ;  the  bust  is  particularly 
well  developed,  and  the  thoracic  coefficient,  of  which  we  have 
elsewhere  explained  the  importance,  is  as  high  as  0-54,  as  in  all 
robust  and  well-proportioned  subjects. 

The  build  of  the  body  is  rather  clumsy,  large  muscles  being 
attached  by  very  strong  insertions  to  a  massive  skeleton. 
The  chest  is  capacious,  the  limbs  large  and  powerful ;  the  head 
is  irregular,  the  hair  being  blond  or  chestnut,  or  sometimes  of 
an  unbecoming  maize-yellow.  The  Kabyle  displays  none 
of  the  refinement  of  feature  observed  in  the  Arabs  ;  but  the 
countenance  is  expressive  and  energetic  ;  the  eyes  are  bright, 
and  the  glance  penetrating. 

The  general  aspect  is  a  trifle  severe,  and  inspires  interest 
rather  than  sympathy ;  it  expresses  determination  and 
decision.  Another  physical  feature  of  the  Kabyle  is  the 
colour  of  his  skin,  which  is  always  lighter  than  that  of  the 
other  Berbers.  The  hereditary  influence,  which  augments  the 
immediate  action  of  the  solar  radiation,  and  reinforces  the 
pigmentation  of  the  skin,  is  here  very  slight ;  we  are  obviously 
dealing  with  a  Mediterranean  people,  implanted  in  Africa  at  a 
fairly  recent  period.  In  this  respect  Kabyles  and  Arabs  are 
closely  related,  forming  a  group  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the 
negroid  races. 

In  the  negroes  the  influence  of  heredity  is  powerful,  and  has 
set  its  seal  upon  the  anthropological  type  of  the  black  race ; 
there  is  a  profound  transformation,  in  the  direction  of  a 
diminution  of  nervous  energy  and  of  the  intellectual  capacities, 
while  a  kind  of  photo-chemical  induction  is  revealed  by  all 
the  elements  of  the  epidermis  :  the  skin,  hair,  and  beard. 

But  among  the  Arabs  the  pigmentation  is  slight.     I  have 


LABOUR 


217 


elsewhere  cited  the  instance  of  the  cap-makers,  who,  from 
father  to  son,  work  in  the  covered  quarters  of  the  towns  known 
as  souks;  they  hardly  ever  see  the  sun,  and  never  become 
sunburned.  Their  complexion  is  if  anything  white,  and  they 
are  often  rather  sickly-looking.1 


Arabs  from  the  South.  Negro.  Kabyle. 

FIG.  68. — Types  of  North  African  Natives. 

I  might  mention  many  other  characteristics  which  differ- 
entiate the  races  which  I  have  observed  ;  their  appearance 
in  itself  is  sufficiently  instructive  (Fig.  68).  I  should  add 
that  the  Kabyles  speak  French  and  Arabic,  although  they 
express  themselves  by  preference  in  Berber.  It  is  not  for  me 
to  hint  what  this  language  reveals  concerning  their  history  at  a 

1  Jules  Amar,  Journal  de  Physiologic,  p.  235,  1908. 


218          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

period  when  it  was  not  as  yet  confounded  with  that  of  any 
other  people.  The  accent,  which  is  harsh,  has  by  no  means 
the  harmony  of  the  Arab  tongue.  Of  what  long  silent  voices 
is  it  the  remote  echo  ?  It  is  for  the  epigraphists  to  inform  us. 

XCVII.  Physiological  Data.— The  Energy  of  the  Arab.— 

The  physiological  problem  relating  to  the  energy  of  the  Arab 
necessitated  a  series  of  careful  experiments,  which  I  was 
enabled  to  apply  to  nearly  250  persons  recruited  all  over 
the  north  of  Africa,  in  order  to  compare  different  races  and 
territories. 

The  strength  of  the  native  varies  from  one  town  to  another, 
according  to  the  economic  conditions.  In  certain  Algerian 
villages  the  native  is  physically  depressed,  and  emaciated  by 
lack  of  nourishment. 

But  even  when  his  diet  is  regular  the  urban  worker  is  nearly 
always  stronger  than  the  rural  worker,  the  artisan  than  the 
peasant.  Employing  the  dynamometer,  I  have  found  that 
lightermen,  dock-labourers,  etc.,  have  given  proof  of  the  great- 
est strength  ;  next  in  order  come  the  tiller  and  the  cultivator 
of  the  soil ;  lastly  the  shopkeeper  or  shop-assistant,  who 
lives  a  sedentary  life.  The  first  are  capable  of  an  effort  almost 
twice  as  great  as  the  last,  and  are  able  to  sustain  it  longer. 
This  advantage  still  continues  if  we  compare  them  with  our 
French  peasants,  but  it  disappears  when  they  are  compared 
with  the  Parisian  artisan,  who  has  long  been  the  subject  of 
my  investigations. 

The  consideration  of  work  is  more  interesting  than  that  of 
strength.  I  therefore  caused  my  subjects  to  carry  burdens, 
varying  from  66  to  132  Ibs.,  at  fixed  paces,  walking  on  the 
flat  or  climbing  a  staircase.  I  also  made  a  methodical  use  of 
my  braked  cycle,  in  order  to  measure  the  work  done  by  the 
legs,  and  to  analyse  the  twofold  effects  of  effort  and  pace. 

It  must  at  once  be  admitted  that  the  Moors  and  the  Kabyles 
are  superior  to  all  the  Arabs  in  respect  of  the  amount  of  daily 
labour  of  which  they  are  capable,  and  the  rapidity  of  their 
movements.  More  nervously  constituted,  they  instinctively 
tend  to  work  rapidly,  and  it  is  difficult  to  moderate  the  swiftness 


LABOUR 


219. 


of   their  movements.     The   natives  of  Tunis,   on  the   other 
hand,  adopt  a  leisurely  pace,  working  with  nonchalance,  and 


FIG.  69. — A  Kabyle,  as  the  Subject  of  an  Experiment  with  the 
Ergometric  Cycle  (Biskra,  1908). 


it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  accelerate  their  movements.     These 
are  noteworthy  characteristics. 

In  industry,  and  in  the  army,  speed  is  a  valuable  factor, 
and    presupposes   a   small    "  personal    equation,"    a   neuro- 


.220         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

muscular  system  which  reacts  without  delay.  The  Berbers 
appeared  to  display  the  vivacious  reaction  of  the  French 
workman,  while  the  other  Arabs  (^splayed  the  slowness  of 
our  peasants,  without  possessing  their  tenacity. 

By  measuring,  on  the  conclusion  of  several  hours  of  work, 
the  degree  of  fatigue  experienced,  and  the  expenditure  of 
energy,  by  means  of  the  apparatus  already  described,  I  was 
able  to  determine  the  factors  of  the  best  daily  output  (Fig.  69). 

In  the  carrying  of  burdens  with  the  subject  walking  on  the 
flat,  the  results  were  the  same  as  those  obtained  in  the  case 
of  French-born  subjects.  These  results  have  already  been 
dealt  with  (Chapter  VI.).  When  it  comes  to  climbing  the 
Arab  is  less  powerful  than  the  European  or  the  Berber.  He 
should  therefore  be  employed  on  continuous  work,  necessitating 
a  moderate  effort,  equal  to  44  to  66  Ibs.,  or  on  agricultural 
work.  The  Kabyle  alone  is  adapted  to  industrial  work,  and 
to  swift  exertion  interrupted  by  short  and  frequent  periods 
of  repose.  Considering  the  amount  of  work  performed  in 
the  day,  under  its  various  aspects,  one  may  reckon  that  5 
Kabyles  are  equivalent  to  6  good  Arab  workers.  The  Moors 
and  negroes  are  in  the  same  category.  "  Their  endurance 
appeared  to  be  very  great,  and  their  output  is,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  highest.  This  endurance  was  more  particularly 
displayed  by  the  way  in  which  they  resumed  the  same  labour 
several  days  in  succession  without  appearing  to  suffer  thereby. 
Our  colonists  in  Oran  are  well  aware  of  this  ;  all  or  nearly  all 
the  labour  they  employ  is  Moorish."  *•  But  if  we  take  into 
account  the  intelligence  and  dexterity  of  the  Kabyle  workers, 
it  is  to  these  last  that  our  industries  should  apply  in  order 
to  constitute  their  staffs  of  operatives.  The  Moor,  and  still 
more  the  negro,  should  be  employed  only  as  a  labourer. 

XCVIII.  The  Diet  of  the  Arab. — Native  labour  is  tractable 
and  of  excellent  quality  just  so  long  as  its  traditions  are 
respected.  It  goes  without  saying  that  its  religious  practices 
.and  its  community  life  must  be  guaranteed,  for  nothing  can 

1  Jules  Amar,  Le  Rendement  de  la  machine  humaine,  p.  88. 


LABOUR  221 

replace  them  ;  moreover,  it  would  be  a  bad  and  mistaken 
action  to  seek  to  replace  them.  The  Arab  has  everything 
to  lose  by  contact  with  the  European  worker  and  the  political 
discussions  of  the  tavern.  We  so  little  understand  the  noble 
usage  of  liberty  that  we  find  it  expedient  to  forbid  its 
teaching.  But  I  am  more  particularly  discussing  physiological 
conditions  ;  and  in  the  first  place  the  alimentation  of  Arab 
workers. 

There  is  not  in  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa  a  thatched  hut 
or  cottage  in  which  the  national  dish  of  couscous  does  not 
form  an  indispensable  element  of  the  diet.  It  is  a  coarse 
semolina,  rolled  into  small  lumps  by  the  combined  action  of 
a  little  water  and  slightly  rancid  butter.  It  is  placed  in  a  pot 
with  a  perforated  bottom  which  covers  the  pot  or  saucepan 
containing  the  day's  broth  or  soup  ;  even  the  line  of  junction 
of  the  vessels  is  plastered  in  order  to  ensure  a  hermetically 
sealed  joint.  The  steam  from  the  broth  thus  passes  through 
the  upper  vessel,  causing  the  contents  to  swell.  In  this  way 
they  are  cooked,  absorbing  the  full  savour  of  the  broth.  The 
couscous  is  served  in  a  great  wooden  dish,  the  soup  or  broth 
being  poured  over  it,  while  the  meat  and  vegetables  which 
the  latter  contains  in  abundance  are  used  to  garnish  it. 

The  natives  of  North  Africa  are  extremely  partial  to  couscous, 
and  the  French  colonists  themselves  have  acquired  a  taste  for 
it.  It  is,  in  fact,  nourishing,  light,  and  stimulates  the  appetite 
(for  its  composition,  see  the  table  on  p.  109),  and  the  presence 
of  butyric  acid,  due  to  its  rancidity,  increases  its  nutritive 
value.  This  observation,  already  made  by  Young  and 
Boussingault,  is  verified  by  my  own  experiments,  for  couscous 
has  yielded  me  an  energetical  output  more  than  15  per  cent, 
greater  than  that  of  bread;  it  is  therefore  more  fully  utilised 
by  the  organism,  probably  because  it  favours  the  digestive 
secretions  both  psychologically  (Pavloff)  and  directly.  By 
reason  of  this  appreciable  advantage,  the  elementary  habits 
of  the  Arab  worker  should  not  be  modified,  except  to  improve 
the  quality  of  his  meals.  Whether  employed  as  industrial  or 
agricultural  workers,  natives  should  be  treated  as  they  were 
formerly  treated  at  my  instance  when  campaigning,  when 


222         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

they  endured  the  cold  and  supported  the  greatest  fatigue.1 
The  problem  of  what  they  should  drink  is  more  important. 
They  ought  not  to  drink  anything  but  water,  purified  chemic- 
ally or  by  boiling,  for  water  is  their  customary  drink ;  more- 
over, their  religion  forbids  the  use  of  fermented  liquors.  But 
in  spite  of  this  prohibition  drunkards  are  plentiful  among 
them  ;  even  drunkards  of  distinction,  if  I  may  use  the  term. 
Now  it  is  also  an  Arab  tradition  to  drink  tea  and  coffee, 
which  act  as  nervines,  owing  to  the  caffeine  contained  in  each. 
Coffee  the  Arabs  drink  as  a  decoction  ;  the  grounds  settle  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cup,  beneath  a  turbid,  frothy  liquid  of  an 
agreeable  savour. 

Tea  is  a  favourite  drink  with  the  Moors  ;  they  drink  many 
cups  a  day,  well  sugared,  and  flavoured  with  fresh  mint. 
The  native  displays  his  hospitality  by  an  invitation  to  take 
coffee  or  tea.  So  long  as  the  Arab  does  not  consume  more 
than  30  grammes  of  roasted  coffee,  or  5  grammes  of  dry  tea 
in  the  twenty-four  hours,  his  labours  will  merely  be  more 
active  for  it,  and  his  efforts  more  continuous,  while  all  his  food 
will  be  more  fully  utilised,  the  saving  being  on  an  average  5 
per  cent. 

There  are  therefore  economical  foods  and  beverages,  which 
men  seek  after  instinctively,  and  by  which  one  must  learn  to 
profit  by  avoiding  toxic  doses. 

As  regards  thirst,  which  is  particularly  tyrannical  in  hot 
climates,  and  is  increased  in  summer,  or  by  the  fatigues  of 
manual  labour,  or  of  warfare,  I  have  succeeded  in  concocting 
a  refreshing  drink  which  my  subjects  accepted  with  pleasure. 
It  is  a  kind  of  lemonade,  whose  hygienic,  nutritive,  and  tonic 
properties  are  easily  explained.  Here  is  the  recipe  : 

Sugar        . .          . .          . .          . .       25  grammes. 

Water 1  litre. 

Lemon  Juice        . .          . .          . .     -025  litre. 

Wine  (10  per  cent,  alcohol)       . .     -070  litre. 

This  vinous  lemonade  will  replace  alcoholic  drinks,  and  its 
abuse  results  in  no  inconveniences. 

titles  Amar,  C.R.   Acad.  Sc.,  14  December,  1914. 


LABOUR  223 

XCIX.  Climate  and  Acclimatisation. — The  effects  of  the 
climate  of  North  Africa  have  resulted  in  a  mode  of  life  and 
a  physiological  resistance  peculiar  to  the  natives,  which  serve 
to  explain  the  nature  of  their  diet.  The  Arab  populations 
are  accustomed  to  live  in  a  temperate  region  which  in  several 
places  is  torrid.  In  summer  the  heat  considerably  diminishes 
their  capacity  for  work,  for  heat  and  humidity  are  unfavourable 
to  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  and  the  proper  functioning 
of  the  nerve-centres.  However,  they  stand  these  unfavourable 
factors  better  than  we  do  ;  they  protect  themselves  by  a 
training  of  the  organic  functions,  and  by  the  protection  afforded 
by  houses  and  quarters  completely  sheltered  from  the  sun. 
To  avoid  the  symptoms  due  to  excessive  perspiration  and 
excessive  absorption  of  the  solar  radiation  the  Arabs  clothe 
themselves  in  wool,  summer  and  winter,  and  in  while  wool 
because  it  is  but  very  slightly  absorbent,  and  is  permeable 
to  the  air,  which  slowly  evaporates  the  secretions  of  the  sweat- 
glands.  Their  piginented  epidermis  does  not  become  inflamed, 
radiating  the  heat  in  greater  quantities  than  that  of  the  white 
man.  All  these  defensive  factors  are  annulled  when  the 
Arab  is  transported  to  a  cold  climate,  such  as  that  of  the 
north  of  France.  Inevitably  the  resistance  of  the  organism 
is  lessened.  Time  is  required  to  restore  it  to  its  former  level, 
for  acclimatisation  is  always  a  very  gradual  phenomenon  ; 
it  progresses  slowly,  as  we  have  already  seen.  It  results  from 
a  series  of  elementary  transformations,  in  which  the  living 
cell  plays  the  essential  part ;  and  it  depends  on  a  large  number 
of  circumstances.  The  health  is  protected  against  low  tem- 
peratures by  the  nervous  mechanisms  which  adapt  the  intensity 
of  the  vital  combustion  to  our  needs,  and,  by  means  of  the  vaso- 
motor  nerves,  make  the  circulation  of  the  blood  increasingly 
active.  These  mechanisms  act  regularly  when  one  is  acclima- 
tised, or  accustomed  to  the  cold,  and  their  automatism  is 
not  in  any  way  subject  to  failure.  But  when  the  external 
heat  has  for  a  long  time  condemned  them  to  inaction  and 
rendered  them  almost  useless,  they  acquire  a  considerable 
inertia,  and  they  then  require  an  actual  functional  re-education. 
In  subjects  who  are  changing  from  a  hot  climate  to  a  cold  one 


224         THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF   INDUSTRIAL   ORGANISATION 

the  regulating  nervous  mechanisms  have  sudden  demands 
made  upon  them,  and  are  unable  to  react  to  the  necessary 
extent,  all  the  more  so  in  that  the  chemical  reactions  of  the 
body  have  become  lethargic.  Consequently  a  vicious  circle 
is  established  in  the  operations  of  physical  life.  The  cells  are 
no  longer  capable  of  increasing  their  calorific  production,  and 
of  protecting  the  health  against  the  rigours  of  the  cold. 

The  cruel  experiment  will  be  remembered  of  which  the 
Creole  contingents  from  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe  were 
the  victims.  Brought  to  France  by  a  hasty  decision,  many 
of  these  conscripts  quickly  perished.  The  sudden  variations 
of  temperature  alone  were  to  be  blamed.  Between  the  climate 
of  the  Antilles  and  that  of  France  there  is  a  difference  of 
temperature  of  22°  to  29°,  and  the  hygrometric  conditions  are 
very  different.  The  conditions  were  violently  antagonistic 
to  the  physiological  evolution  of  these  natives. 

However,  I  had  advised  that  in  the  case  of  the  Creoles,1 
as  in  that  of  the  Arabs,  the  classes  should  be  called  to  the 
colours  in  the  month  of  April,  and  that  the  men  should  be 
sent  into  barracks  in  Provence  ;  or  that  they  should  be  sent 
to  various  portions  of  Tunis,  where  they  would  be  ready  for 
employment  on  our  eastern  frontier  in  the  September  man- 
oeuvres. 

It  was  this  last  course  which  was  adopted,  unhappily  too 
late,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  a  great  newspaper,  which 
was  in  favour  of  repatriating  the  Creoles  without  more  ado. 
Abstention  is  a  virtue  of  ignorance. 

The  same  precautions  should  be  taken  with  regard  to  the 
Arab  labourers,  of  whom  nearly  20,000  were  occupied  in  our 
industries  before  the  war ;  they  should  be  first  employed  in 
the  south  of  France,  and  should  not  be  sent  into  the  northern 
provinces  until  two  or  three  months  have  elapsed.  However, 
the  Kabyles  and  the  mountain  folk  from  the  Atlas  range 
resist  the  cold  better,  and  become  accustomed  to  it  more  rapidly. 
They  are  familiar  with  the  severest  winters  ;  their  nerves  and 
muscles  have  been  braced  by  the  cold  of  the  snows.  Well 
fed,  and  surrounded  by  hygienic  precautions  of  which  they 

1  See,  for  example,  La  Petite  Republique,  12  July,  1913. 


LABOUR  225 

have  not  the  remotest  idea,  but  which  the  manufacturer  will 
be  able  to  ensure,  they  will  endure  the  greatest  fatigue  and 
the  severest  winter  without  any  impairment  of  theii  strength. 
All  that  applies  to  industrial  organisation  applies  with  equal 
force  to  military  organisation.  But  all  would  be  impossible, 
acclimatisation  and  training  would  alike  be  useless,  were  not 
energetic  measures  taken  against  alcoholism. 

C.  The  Cost  of  Arab  Labour. — Such  is  the  duty  incumbent 
upon  Governments  and  manufacturers  at  the  moment  when 
the  economic  life  of  the  country  is  about  to  overflow  its  bed, 
to  sweep  away  the  ruin  and  abomination  wrought  by  man. 
The  reserves  of  the  army  of  labour  must  be  prepared.  Now 
in  Algeria  250,000  natives,  or  g-,  of  the  population,  are  in 
the  service  of  the  colonists.  They  work  nearly  12  hours 
daily,  their  meals  are  irregular,  and  they  are  exploited  by  those 
of  their  co-religionists  who  recruit  them,  and  indemnify  them- 
selves corruptly  and  fraudulently  for  their  good  offices.1 

Wages  are  very  low,  but  the  quality  of  the  labour  is  indiffer- 
ent. To  tell  the  truth,  these  men  are  not  acquainted  with  any 
craft  which  reveals  a  method,  or  any  art  requiring  study. 

The  fault  of  our  colonisation  was  precisely  that  it  dis- 
regarded the  virtue  of  apprenticeship  and  technical  instruction, 
to  the  point  of  offering,  as  a  substitute,  I  know  not  what  empty 
literature,  in  which  the  Arabs  indulge  themselves  while  they  go 
short  of  bread.  They  love  glitter  and  tinsel,  and  they  have 
been  allowed  to  believe  that  degrees  and  diplomas  and  the 
liberal  professions  lead  without  effort  to  officialism.  Hence 
their  ardent  ambition  for  civic  rights.  The  Government  should 
have  pursued  quite  a  contrary  course  ;  should  have  multiplied 
industrial  schools,  and  should  have  taught  in  them,  together 
with  the  indispensable  elements  of  our  language,  all  the  useful 
crafts,  industrial  and  agricultural  :  not  only  in  order  to  render 
our  colonies  prosperous^  to  stimulate  the  activity  of  those  who 
inhabit  them,  and  often  to  save  them  from  starvation,  the 
mother  of  crime  ;  but  also  in  order  to  form  workmen  who 
might  one  day  usefully  be  sent  to  France. 

1  Jules  Amar,  Report  to  M.  Rene  Viviani,  Minister  of  Labour,  3  April,  1909. 


226          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

The  love  of  work  has  no  other  source  than  the  well-being 
which  it  procures.  The  Arab  makes  an  ardent  and  even  a 
devoted  worker  or  soldier,  on  the  sole  condition  that  his  daily 
bread  is  guaranteed  to  him.1  Our  politicians  appear  to  under- 
stand this  now,  thanks  to  their  own  observations  and  the 
impartial  experience  of  some  of  our  colonists.  For  nations 
and  races,  since  the  dawn  of  humanity,  have  felt  their  solidarity 
only  by  reason  of  the  infrangible  chain  of  interest. 

CI. — During  the  course  of  the  present  war  a  certain  amount 
of  Annamite  labour  has  been  employed.  The  Annamites  have 
certain  affinities  with  the  Malays  and  the  Japanese  ;  they  are 
intelligent  and  hard-working,  and  they  make  good  industrial 
workers,  but  in  their  manners  and  customs  they  are  far  more 
alien  to  us  than  are  the  Arabs. 

To  conclude  :  it  is  hardly  conceivable  that  I  should  have 
written  so  much  of  labour  without  declaring  that  the  right  to 
work  is  indefeasible.  It  is  obviously  the  right  of  all,  for  the 
right  of  each  depends  upon  it ;  the  converse  is  not  true.  As  I 
remarked  when  speaking  of  strikes,  the  true  solution  of  the 
social  problem  is  to  be  found  in  the  better  organisation  of  the 
conditions  of  life,  and  in  well-drafted  laws.  To  be  perfect,  the 
work  of  the  legislator  should  be  based  upon  experimental 
science,  and  the  highly  exact  teachings  of  the  physiology  of 
work ;  but,  above  all,  it  should  be  applied  liberally  to  all 
workers,  men,  women,  and  children ;  to  the  grouped 
workers  of  the  city  as  to  the  peasants  lost  in  the  recesses  of 
their  hills  or  valleys.  It  is  by  integrity  and  impartiality  that 
the  politician  impresses  himself  upon  human  societies  ;  some- 
times even  upon  cultivated  societies. 

1  Julea  Amar,  Epistolary  Report  addressed  on  4  June,  1909,  to  M.  G.  CUmen- 
ceau,  President  of  the  Council  of  Ministers. 


CHAPTER    X 
THE  RE=EDUCATION  OF  WAR=CRIPPLES 1 

I. — FUNCTIONAL  RE-EDUCATION 

GIL — Science  and  the  human  conscience  were  confronted 
by  a  serious  problem  when  it  became  necessary  for  them  to 
turn  their  attention  to  the  labour  of  wounded  soldiers,  the 
glorious  victims  of  this  most  horrible  of  wars.2 

This  problem  has  naturally  stirred  the  noblest  minds,  and 
has  canvassed  all  departments  of  knowledge.  I  shall  not 
attempt  to  recall  all  the  efforts  which  have  been  made,  both  in 
France  and  elsewhere,  to  perform  useful  work  in  this  direction. 
As  a  rule  inspiration  was  derived  from  the  rather  out-of-date 
example  of  the  Scandinavian  countries.  There  are,  in  fact, 

1 1  have  expanded,  in  this  chapter  and  those  following,  my  article  in  the 
Journal  du  Physiologie,  p.  821,  1915,  and  my  lecture  on  the  subject  of  assisting 
war-cripples,  at  which  M.  Painleve,  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  was  in  the 
-chair.  (This  lecture  was  published  as  a  booklet  by  MM.  Dunot  et  Pinat,  Paris.) 

2  The  French  language  is  richer  than  the  English  in  terms  denoting  persons 
who  have  suffered  amputation,  who  are  crippled  by  wounds  or  accidental  injuries, 
or  whose  health  has  been  temporarily  or  permanently  impaired.  As  some  of 
these  terms  have  no  equivalents  in  English,  the  translator  is  obliged  to  com- 
promise. The  adjective  impotent  or  invalid  will  be  used  to  denote  any  person 
in  whom  the  impaired  functions,  for  anatomical  reasons,  cannot  be  restored. 
The  infirm  subject,  on  the  other  hand,  may  recover  the  impaired  functions. 
The  war-cripple  may  be  invalid  or  infirm ;  he  has  lost  a  limb,  or  a  segment  of  a 
limb,  or  some  other  bodily  organ.  This  term  will  include  those  who  have  suffered 
the  mutilation  or  amputation  of  an  organ  of  locomotion.  In  general,  it  signifies 
one  who  is  infirm,  or  has  suffered  mutilation,  through  the  agency  of  external 
causes ;  it  is  used  to  signify  any  badly  wounded  soldier  who  has  suffered  func- 
tional loss  or  damage.  These  terms  are  necessarily  employed  to  replace  a  variety 
of  French  terms,  but,  the  translator  believes,  with  no  real  distortion  of  meaning. 
— (Translator.) 

227 


228         THE   PHYSIOLOGY   OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

organisations  for  the  assistance  of  persons  who  have  lost  one 
or  more  limbs  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway.  The  Copen- 
hagen organisation,  due  to  the  initiative  of  Pastor  Hans 
Knudsen,  is  the  oldest  (1872).  Those  of  Stockholm  and 
Christiania  were  created  20  years  later.  And  to  whatever 
country  we  turn  our  eyes,  we  see  that  those  who  emulated 
Knudsen  were  inspired  always  by  the  conception  of  assisting 
the  lame  and  crippled,  of  really  helping  them,  and  affording 
them  benevolent  relief.  We  have  here  a  religious,  or  if  you 
prefer  a  moral  conception,  traces  of  which  are  found  in  the 
most  ancient  civilisations.  But  owing  to  the  lack  of  a  scientific 
basis,  and  an  ignorance  of  social  problems,  no  attempt  was 
ever  made  to  provide  the  wounded  soldier  with  a  technical 
re-education,  even  after  the  wars  which  from  1854  to  1871 
drenched  Europe  and  America  with  blood. 

The  time  has  come,  I  believe,  to  organise  the  work  of  the 
wounded,  in  such  a  manner  that  each  shall  fill  his  true  place 
in  the  social  machine,  contribute  as  best  he  can  to  its  operation, 
and  thereby  advance  toward  prosperity. 

The  object  of  this  organisation  is  therefore  to  utilise  human 
capacities  rationally,  even  when  they  are  diminished,  and 
within  the  limits  of  a  normal  life.  "  The  problem,"  as  M. 
Viviani  remarked,  "  is  to  rise  from  the  somewhat  inferior 
water-mark  of  assistance  to  that  of  forethought  by  means  of 
labour."  l 

GUI.    The  Necessity  of  employing  Wounded  Soldiers. 

— This,  no  doubt,  is  in  its  essence  a  technical  and  scientific 
problem,  which  has  been  reserved  for  our  own  times  ;  but  it  also 
belongs  to  that  order  of  social  questions  into  which  enter,  in 
proportions  which  I  cannot  well  define,  legislative  action,  and 
political  action,  in  the  higher  sense  of  the  term. 

We  must  not  indeed  forget  that  on  its  solution  depend  both 
the  moral  and  material  future  of  many  thousands  of  French 
and  English  families,  and  the  economic  range,  as  yet  so  limited, 
of  France.  If  we  wish  to  stimulate  industrial,  commercial,  and 
agricultural  labour,  no  effort  must  anywhere  be  lost  or  squan- 

1  From  a  speech  by  M.  Ren6  Viviani,  Keeper  of  the  Seals,  before  the  Senate, 
on  10  March,  1916. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  229 

dered.  This  is  the  condition  of  national  wealth.  We  have 
already  remarked  that  for  some  years  the  supply  of  labour 
has  been  growing  more  and  more  scanty.  Workers  and 
employees  have  been  lacking  not  only  in  respect  of  quality, 
but  also  of  numbers.  What  will  it  be  to-morrow  ? 

Such  are  the  speculations  aroused  by  the  problem  of 
our  wounded  soldiers,  and  those  injured  in  industrial 
accidents,  in  respect  of  the  reserves  of  energy  with  which 
they  would  endow  the  nation,  were  their  industrial  and 
commercial  aptitudes  exploited,  so  to  speak,  and  reinforced 
by  a  methodical  re-education,  with  a  view  to  immediate 
employment. 

To  confine  our  attention  to  the  war-cripples  only,  80  per 
cent,  of  these  are  capable  of  re-education,  and  could  resume 
their  position  in  the  social  ranks,  secure  of  earning  sufficient 
salaries  and  wages.  They  may  be  divided  into  those  who  can 
be  re-educated  unconditionally,  who  constitute  about  65  per 
cent.,  and  those  who  can  be  re-educated  conditionally  :  in  the 
sense,  that  is,  that  they  require  specially  equipped  \\orkshops, 
while  the  former  do  not ;  a  difference  which  involves,  in  the 
case  of  the  latter,  a  certain  difficulty  in  obtaining  employment, 
in  overcoming  the  reluctance  of  employers,  who  are  in  general 
but  little  inclined  to  go  to  the  expense  of  this  special  equip- 
ment for  war-cripples.  But  we  rightly  desire  the  employment 
of  these  wounded  soldiers  to  bt,  si  rrounded  by  all  those  guaran- 
tees which  will  make  it  a  durable  arrangement,  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  interested  parties. 

However,  do  not  let  us  be  the  dupes  of  appearances.  The 
wounded  soldier,  or  the  victim  of  amputation,  possesses  a 
capacity  for  work  which  is  perfectly  capable  of  complete 
utilisation  ;  he  represents  a  value  which  is  sometimes  integral. 
He  may  even  make  up  for  his  physical  deficiency  by  an  efficaci- 
ous good-will,  which  increases  his  output.  This  is  a  psycholo- 
gical fact,  by  which  teachers  and  employers  should  profit, 
for  it  is  undeniable.  The  French  soldier,  with  whom  I  have 
been  associating  for  the  last  eighteen  months,  has  invariably 
displayed  an  admirable  spirit  of  courage,  coolness,  and  resolu- 
tion. Sometimes  a  few  words  of  consolation,  or  better  still, 


230          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

of  good  advice,  were  necessary.  Never  did  he  refuse  to  listen 
to  qualified  advice. 

The  numerous  wounded  soldiers  who  have  not  suffered 
amputation,  but  display  an  incapacity  for  work,  which  of  course 
differs  in  degree,  are  more  or  less  rapidly  re-adapted,  and 
are  able  to  dispense  with  technical  re-education  ;  though 
they  sometimes  need  to  complete  their  general  education,  in 
order  that  they  may  turn  their  attention  to  office  work  of 
some  kind  ;  and  such  education  will  in  all  respects  be  of  value. 
We  may  therefore  say  that  barely  20  per  cent,  of  those  who- 
have  suffered  amputation,  a  very  small  proportion  of  wounded 
soldiers  who  are  completely  invalided,  and  the  majority  of 
the  blind,  will  be  subjects  for  relief  or  assistance  only,  which 
in  France  falls  within  the  province  of  the  Ministry  of  the 
Interior. 

But  the  great  majority,  fortunately,  that  is,  all  who  are 
capable  of  re-education,  are  waiting  for  a  scientific  organisation 
which  shall  restore  them,  by  trustworthy  paths,  to  the  profes- 
sions in  which  each  will  give  his  full  measure.  They  under- 
stand that  to  fall  back  upon  public  assistance  or  private  charity 
is  a  degradation  for  the  man  who  is  still  capable  of  working 
with  hands  or  brain.  And  I  am  in  a  position  to  declare  that 
the  heroic  soldiers  of  1914  were  always  far  from  entertaining 
depressing  ideas,  or  of  giving  way  to  the  instinct  of  the  least 
effort,  although  it  would  have  been  quite  excusable  if  they 
had  listened  to  its  promptings. 

Such  are  the  reasons  which  have  led  me  to  define  an  efficacious 
method  of  re-education,  and  to  expound  a  programme  of 
action  relating  to  the  organisation  of  the  work  of  wounded 
soldiers.  The  many  applications  of  this  method  and  this 
programme  which  have  been  effected  in  various  countries 
afford  proof  of  their  reliability. 

CIV.  The  General  Principles  of  Re -Education. — To  my 

mind,  re-education  should  comprise  three  periods.  During 
the  first  period,  that  of  functional  re-education,  it  is  necessary 
to  analyse  the  movements  of  the  subject,  in  order  to  determine 
his  functional  condition,  to  restore,  as  far  as  possible,  his  former 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  231 

motor  capacity,  and  finally,  to  make  sure  that  prolonged  exer- 
tion does  not  threaten  to  impair  the  resistance  of  the  organism. 
During  a  second  period,  we  endeavour  to  make  up  for  the 
deficit  caused  by  the  infirmity,  by  a  system  of  orthopaedics  ; 
subjects  who  have  suffered  mutilation  or  amputation  will  be 
fitted  with  suitable  prothelic  appliances ;  and  then  com- 
mences the  professional  re-education  properly  so-called,  which 
is  the  third  and  last  period.  As  soon  as  this  is  completed 
we  find  employment  for  our  wounded  soldiers.  It  is  obvious 
that  those  in  whom  some  slight  infirmity  has  made  its  appear- 
ance, or  those  who  are  capable  of  immediate  orthopaedic 
treatment,  will  without  delay  resume  their  former  vocations. 
At  all  events,  they  could  do  so. 

But  if  the  infirmity  is  more  serious  or  more  extensive,  and 
if  it  is  refractory  to  all  functional  re-education,  or  to  any 
simple  mechanical  substitution,  we  must  consider  the  advis- 
ability of  a  change  of  vocation. 

The  question  of  a  change  of  profession,  which  may  result 
in  the  loss  of  experience  laboriously  acquired,  of  a  valuable 
and  often  a  lucrative  nature,  is  one  which  must  be  approached 
with  caution.  Nevertheless,  re-apprenticeship  is  occasionally 
a  necessity.  It  is  so  in  the  case  of  many  war-cripples,  especi- 
ally those  who  have  suffered  amputation  of  the  arm. 

CV.  The  Functional  Re-Education  of  the  Wounded.— 1. 

THE  INFIRM. — Let  us  consider  the  first  of  these  three  periods, 
known  as  the  period  of  functional  re-education.  In  this  we 
deal  with  the  motor  capacity  of  the  subject  and  his  physiological 
value.  We  shall  employ,  in  this  connection,  the  technical 
methods  mentioned  above  (p.  125),  while  endeavouring  to 
re-establish  the  normal  mobility  of  the  articulations  and  the 
synergy  of  the  muscles.  We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact 
that  the  movement  of  a  limb  is  accomplished,  practically,  in 
a  determined  plane,  and  that  if  we  can  get  it  to  accomplish  its 
maximum  amplitude  of  movement  in  this  plane  any  other 
movement  is  by  this  very  fact  made  feasible  ;  the  more  so  as 
the  exercises  on  the  cycle,  the  cheirograph,  or  the  bulb 
dynamograph  involve  the  exertion  of  strength. 


232 


THE   PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


In  any  case,  we  must  aim  at  practical  results.  Experience 
shows  that  the  mobility  which  is  gradually  restored  to  the 
articulations,  up  to  the  limits  imposed  by  the  necessities  of 
industrial  or  profession  life,  the  increased  strength  which  is 


Cheirogram. 
•    in    FiFths  of  a 

JOJJ-UJOJLMJLUJLAJJ  '  "  " 

Fir  s  t     Fin  g 

— — - 


Middle    Finger. 

~\  r\  r\ 


ThehiubjectfFi 
makes  30  contt 


The    rnytnm  is-r 
by  a  mebronoi 


FIG.  70. — Normal  Cheirograms  of  the  Fingers. 


the  correlative  of  this  mobility,  and  the  reparative  humoral 
activity  which  ensues,  form  a  united  and  self-sufficing  whole. 
Work  is  then  possible,  and  will  favour  the  motive  power  of 
the  organs. 

With  the  ergometric  cycle  the  great  articulations  are  quickly 
re-educated,  within  the  limits  of  their  normal  and  habitual  scope. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


233 


whether  for  walking  or  the  handling  of  tools.  The  cheiro- 
graph  ensures,  more  strictly  and  effectively,  the  mobilisation 
of  the  rigidities  localised  in  the  fingers  or  the  wrist.  The  trac- 
ings made  by  the  patient,  during  the  progress  of  the  treatment, 
are  compared  with  a  normal  tracing  (Fig.  70), 
representing  the  efforts  of  the  sound  hand.  The 
muscles  of  the  hand  are  finally  strengthened  and 
made  supple  by  means  of  the  bulb  dynamo- 
graph,  a  simple  and  rational  means  of  exercise. 
Cases  of  weakness  or  lack  of  power  rapidly 
improve  under  such  treatment,  and  in  a  great 
number  of  cases  no  trace  of  constraint  remains. 
After  exercise  massage  should  be  applied,  as  this 
assists  the  process  of  improvement. 

In  other  cases  the  infirmity  requires  long  and 
laborious  treatment ;  but  one  should  never 
despair  of  the  resources  of  training,  or,  at  least, 
should  not  despair  of  obtaining  an  improvement 
which  will  make  it  possible  to  re-adapt  the 
wounded  soldier  to  a  calling  suited  to  his 
infirmity. 

A  large  number  of  men  wounded  in  the 
lower  limbs  are  obliged  to  employ  crutches, 
either  permanently  or  for  some  considerable 
time.  It  is  important  that  these  should  not 
cause  a  diminution  of  mobility ;  re-education, 
on  the  contrary,  should  profit  by  their  use, 
gradually  training  the  legs  and  accustoming 
them  to  resume  their  normal  activity. 

Hitherto  the  types   of   crutches  in  use  have 
not   prevented    the   occurrence  of   19   cases   of 
paresis  among  every  100  users  of  crutches.1    The 
majority   of   those   who    escape    this   infirmity 
owe  their  escape  to  the  fact  that  they  bear  upon  the  cross-bar 
in  the  middle  of  the  crutch  rather  than  on  the  shoulder-piece. 
But  this  pressure  of  the  hands  is  fatiguing ;  moreover,  there 
is  less   stability   of  gait.     And   the   employment   of   crutch- 

1  Tuffier  and  Amar,  C.R.  Acad.  Sc.,  Vol.  CLXI.,  p.  302,  13  September,  1915. 


FIG.  71. 

Adjustable 

Physiological 

Crutch. 


234         THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

sticks,  with  a  spring  to  support  the  fore-arm,  was  only  an 
expedient  (Tuffier  and  Amar).1 

Later  on  I  devised  the  adjustable  crutch  (Fig.  71)  which  gives 
me  complete  satisfaction.  The  shoulder-piece  is  supported 
laterally  on  springs,  of  suitable  strength,  which  act  as  shock- 
absorbers,  and  bear  the  weight  of  the  body,  imparting  to  it 


FIG.  72. — Investigation  of  Fatigue  in  a  Subject  using  Crutches. 

a  sort  of  oscillation,  which  accelerates  the  movement  of  propul- 
sion and  lessens  the  axillary  pressure.  Moreover,  the  appliance 
is  fitted  with  a  cross-bar  which  can  be  adjusted  at  will,  the  extent 
of  the  said  adjustment  being  3-6  inches ;  while  the  lower  portion 
consists  of  two  tubes,  one  of  which  slides  into  the  other,  so 
that  the  crutch  may  be  adjusted  to  the  height  of  the  user.2 

1  Jules  Amar,  La  Nature,  29  April,  1916,  pp.  287-8. 

1  The  average  height  of  a  crutch  is  50  inches  for  a  man  between  5  feet  5  inches 
and  5  feet  8  inches  in  height.     The  cross-bar  is  33-5  inches  from  the  ground. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


235 


Simple,  practical,  and  very  durable,  this  adjustable  crutch 
fulfils  the  physiological  conditions  to  be  required  of  any 
crutch,  the  mechanical  conditions  being  fulfilled  by  all  models, 


Thrust     of    right    han 


in    seconds 


38  years 
(packer) 
14th-  June  /3< 


FIG.  73. — Tracings  made  by  an  infirm  Subject  undergoing  Re-education. 
The  Work  represented  is  filing  Metal.     (At  the  end  of  a  fortnight.) 

but  never  by  a  stick,  whatever  its  form.  The  wounded  soldier 
must  be  led,  by  successive  stages,  to  rely  less  and  less  on  the 
double  support  of  the  armpits,  and  to  employ  the  muscles  of 


236          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

the  limbs,  without  fatiguing  them.     That  he  does  not  do  this 


Total  Pressure  o 


Thrust   of    right    hand 


Pressui 


Thrust    oP  leFt 


n       n    n 


Before    work 


During    work 


onds        or 


okes    of  Fi 


June  191 
(Alain}. 


FIG.  74.— The  same  at  the  end  of  a  Month. 

I   am  able  to  assure  myself   by  measuring   the   respiratory 
energy. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


237 


CVI.  Results. — I  shall  not  speak  of  the  results  obtained 
already  in  the  numerous  cases  in  which  these  principles  of 
functional  re-education  have  been  applied.  The  majority  of 
patients  who  owe  to  these  principles  the  restoration  of  their 


Pressure  or  both  h 


Thrust  of  righ 


'e  of  /eft  hand 


ust  of  left    ha i 


AA^ 


Time    in    seconds. 


Louis  A I  lain 

fraction  of  lower  extremity 


FIG.  75. — The  same  at  the  end  of  Five  Weeks. 

dynamical  capacity  have  also  been  re-educated  professionally  or 
technically,  and  in  the  professional  movements  performed  by 
them  one  observes  the  certainty  and  the  efficacy  of  the  physio- 
logical methods  which  we  have  just  expounded.  I  will  mention, 
for  example,  the  case  of  a  fracture  of  the  wrist,  accompanied  by 


238          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

the  almost  complete  rigidity  of  the  articulations.  Figs.  73 
to  75  show  how  rapidly  power  and  movement  were  re-estab- 
lished, enabling  the  subject  to  resume  his  work.  The  cheiro- 


Fio.  76. — Work  with  the  File  done  by  a  wounded  Soldier  at  the  outset  of  his 
Re-education. 

graph  exercises  are  in  this  connection  of  remarkable  value. 
An  elongation  of  the  right  brachial  plexus,  whose  effects,  at 
the  outset,  are  seen  in  Fig.  76,  left  no  visible  consequences. 
A  complete  anchylosis  of  two  fingers  (the  first  and  third) ; 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


239 


a  hand  with  the  fingers  flexed  like  the  petals  of  a  bell-flower ; 
the  almost  complete  anchylosis  of  the  right  shoulder,  resulting 
from  a  bullet-wound,  which  yielded,  giving  a  degree  of  mobility 
which  enabled  the  patient  to  resume  his  work  as  ticket  inspector 


FIG.  77. — Result  of  the  Re-education  of  a  case  of  complete  Anchylosis  of 
the  Shoulder. 


on  the  Paris  Metropolitan  Railway  (Fig.  77) ;  a  similar  case 
affecting  the  left  shoulder  and  elbow  of  a  young  soldier  who 
was  already  suffering  from  scoliosis,  but  was  able  to  rejoin 
the  army  after  a  few  weeks  of  energetic  treatment ;  rigid 
fingers ;  paralysis  of  the  hand,  of  varying  severity ;  and 


240 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


osseous  ablations  of  the  fore-arm  (Fig.  78)  :  in  all  these  cases 
nothing  was  left  of  the  initial  infirmity  but  traces  which  were 
practically  negligible. 

If  I  were  to  give  a  tabulation  of  the  daily  increase  of  ampli- 
tude revealed  by  the  movements  of  the  articulations,  and  of 
the  muscular  strength,  scrupulously  observed  by  means  of 


FIG.  78. — Early  stages  of  the  Re-education  of  a  wounded  Soldier  (Ablation  of  the 
lower  third  of  the  right  Ulna). 


the  arthrodynamometer,  I  should  merely  be  giving  a  mass  of 
personal  observations,  whereas  I  infinitely  prefer  the  testi- 
mony of  those  who  make  a  study  of  these  important  questions, 
and  who  write  to  me  in  a  most  gratifying  spirit  of  scientific 
unanimity. 

The  only  point  on  which  I  must  insist  is  that  the  re-education 
of  the  movements  must  serve  as  a  preparation  for  the  re-educa- 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  241 

tion  of  the  patient  in  respect  of  useful  or  professional  labour, 
and  that  this  must  be  regulated  according  to  the  physical 
and  moral  condition  of  the  patient. 

While  the  number  of  those  who  suffer  from  some  infirmity 
due  to  wounds  received  in  war  or  to  the  accidents  of  the  work- 
shop is  very  considerable,  the  number  of  those  who  have 
suffered  amputation  is  no  less  considerable.  The  consideration 
of  such  cases  forms  quite  a  special  study,  owing  to  the  necessity 
of  a  precise  evaluation  of  the  functional  loss  involved  by 
this  or  that  mutilation,  and  to  the  means,  which  are  fairly 
complex,  of  remedying  this  loss  by  prothesis. 

CVII. — .2.  WAR-CRIPPLES. — THE  FUNCTIONAL  VALUE  OF 
THE  STUMPS.1 — The  re-education  and  the  functional  value  of  a 
stump  must  be  considered  from  two  points  of  view — that 
of  physiology,  and  that  of  prothesis. 

Usually  nothing  is  attempted  beyond  the  estimation  of 
the  loss  of  strength  resulting  from  the  amputation.  There  is 
no  further  analysis  of  the  consequences  involved  by  the 
amputation,  or  of  the  means  by  which  they  might  be  avoided. 
Now  it  must  be  remembered  that  amputation  does  not  merely 
diminish  the  muscular  activity,  considered  in  its  mechanical 
factors  :  the  force  exerted  by  the  muscles,  and  the  bony  lever 
upon  which  they  act.  It  profoundly  affects  the  histo-physio- 
logical  development  of  the  entire  member,  even  under  the  most 
normal  circumstances,  and  in  the  absence  of  any  complication. 
Particularly  does  it  affect  the  sensory  system,  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  exhibits  a  strict  solidarity  with  the  motor  system. 
The  result  is  a  diminution  of  functional  capacity,  which  no 
one  has  as  yet  attempted  to  estimate.  Yet  this  estimation 
is  of  considerable  importance,  as  a  guide  to  the  prothesis 
and  the  industrial  re-adaptation  of  the  victims  of  mutilation  ; 
above  all  when  it  is  admitted  that  the  sensibility  of  the  stumps 
is  susceptible  of  education  to  a  degree  of  which  absolutely  no 
conception  had  been  formed,  as  we  shall  presently  see  is  the 
case.  To  accomplish  this  sensory  education  of  the  stumps, 

1  Jules  Amar,  C.R.  Acad.  Sc.,  29  May  and  5  June,  1916,  Vol.  CLXIL,  pp.  84£ 

and  887. 


242          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

and  to  develop  their  functional  utilisation  to  the  maximum  ; 
such  for  two  years  was  the  object  of  my  investigations. 

CVIII.  The  Power  of  the  Stumps. — In  the  first  place,  as 
I  have  observed,  amputation  diminishes  the  motive  power. 

The  length  of  the  bony  lever  from  the  centre  of  the  adjoining 
articulation  is  diminished  ;  the  muscular  strength  is  impaired, 
owing  to  atrophy  and  the  immobility  to  which  the  patient  is 
condemned,  often  to  a  greater  extent  than  he  should  be. 

But  in  what  proportions  does  the  power  of  the  stump  vary 
in  respect  of  its  length  ?  The  more  closely  it  approaches  the 
normal  length  of  the  segment,  the  better  the  grip  of  the  pro- 
thetic  appliance,  and  the  more  effectual  the  intervention  of 
the  muscular  synergy  of  the  member.  It  is  none  the  less  a 
fact  that  these  two  advantages  are  not  uniformly  augmented 
in  proportion  to  the  dimensions  of  the  stump.  This  is  demon- 
strated by  the  following  example  : 

Let  us  consider  the  muscles  which  flex  the  fore-arm  upon 
the  humerus.  The  action  of  these  muscles  is  applied  at  a 
distance  of  about  1-4  inches  from  the  articulation  of  the  elbow, 
overcoming  the  total  resistance  of  the  fore-arm  and  the  hand, 
whose  effective  action  is  at  the  centre  of  gravity,  about  6£ 
inches  from  the  same  articulation.  It  is  obvious  that  if 
amputation  respects  the  insertion  of  the  muscles  which 
accomplish  the  useful  movements — if,  in  our  example,  it 
leaves  a  stump  of  not  less  than  1-6  inches  in  length — this 
latter  will  possess  its  total  physiological  value,  which  it  is  the 
part  of  scientific  prothesis  to  utilise  in  a  skilful  and  satisfactory 
manner.  Now  this  anatomical  measurement  is  insufficient ; 
for,  on  the  one  hand,  there  is  no  movement  in  which  an 
entire  muscular  group  does  not  collaborate  with  its  apparently 
antagonistic  elements ;  and  in  short  stumps  this  synergy, 
which  is  physiological,  not  anatomical,  is  impaired  or  restricted. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  must  take  into  consideration  the 
solidity  and  stability  of  the  adjustment  of  the  prothetic 
appliance,  and  this  depends  on  the  length  of  the  stump. 
These  two  factors  are  of  equal  importance  in  the  case  of 
amputations  of  the  lower  limbs,  owing  to  the  weight  and 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  243 

momentum  of  the  body  when  walking.  In  the  case  of  the 
upper  limbs  the  principal  factor  is  stability  ;  its  purpose  being 
to  make  swift  and  certain  movements  possible. 

It  would  seem,  however,  that  in  the  case  of  stumps  which 
are  just  sufficiently  long  to  perform  their  function  prothesis 
offers  one  advantage  over  nature  ;  it  replaces  the  amputated 
segment  by  a  stronger  and  lighter  segment.  But  this  is  not 
an  advantage,  for  if  amputation  is  effected  too  high  it  results 
in  the  disappearance  of  the  muscular  elements  whose  strength 
would  have  made  up  for  the  inertia  of  the  organ  ;  it  enfeebles 
the  phenomena  of  cellular  nutrition  and  vitality,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  favours  atrophy  and  degeneration.  We  shall 
return  to  this  point  later  on. 

The  surgeon,  however,  will  rely  upon  methods  of  operation 
which  sacrifice  the  length  of  the  stump  in  order  to  ensure 
that  it  is  more  comfortably  covered  at  its  termination,  and 
to  remove  all  causes  of  pain  and  ulceration. 

From  these  brief  considerations  it  obviously  follows  that 
surgery,  prothesis,  and  industrial  re-education  should  be 
guided  by  the  exact  measurement  of  the  power  of  the 
stump.  Here  I  will  confine  my  explanations  to  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  experimental  methods  adapted  to  this  work  of 
measurement. 

CIX.  Technical  Method  of  Measuring  the  Power  of 
Stumps. — The  method  employed  is  very  simple.  The  angular 
movements  of  the  stump  upon  its  articulation  are  measured,  in 
degrees,  and  also  the  absolute  power  of  the  muscles  which 
determine  this  movement  of  flexion.  By  comparing  these 
with  the  power  and  the  mobility  of  the  sound  limb  we  obtain 
the  ratio  of  loss  resulting  from  amputation. 

For  such  measurements  we  may  employ  the  arthrodyna- 
mometer.  But  in  order  to  approximate  to  the  conditions 
under  which  the  activity  of  the  stump  will  be  exercised,  we  have 
adopted  the  employment  of  the  dynamometrical  splint,  with 
which,  in  connection  with  the  ergometrical  cycle,  we  have 
for  the  last  eighteen  months  been  re-educating  amputated 
limbs. 


244         THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF   INDUSTRIAL   ORGANISATION 


FIG.  79. — Measuring  the  power  of  a  Stump  (Arm)  by  means 
of  the  Dynamometrical  splint. 


FIG.  80. — Measuring  the  power  of  a  Stump  (Leg)  by  means 
of  the  Dynamometrical  splint. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  245 

The  stump  is  adjusted  in  the  splint,  whether  brachial  or 
femoral  (Figs.  79  and  80),  the  articulation  being  exactly  in 
a  line  with  the  axle.  Its  maximum  movement  of  oscillation 
is  imposed  upon  it  from  the  position  of  extreme  adduction 
to  that  of  extreme  abduction,  during  which  movement  the 
axle  moves  the  pointer  over  the  graduated  dial. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  we  have  seen,  a  ribbon  of  steel  passes 
over  the  flywheel  ;  its  tension  is  adjusted  by  means  of  weights, 
which  regulate  the  friction  produced  ;  in  this  way  a  resistance 
is  produced  which  can  be  varied  at  will,  and  which,  moreover, 
is  marked  upon  a  dynamometer.  The  product  of  the  friction 
and  the  distance  travelled  by  the  periphery  of  the  flywheel 
gives  the  work  performed.  The  duration  of  the  oscillation 
being  known  (it  should  be  the  most  rapid  and  the  most 
ample  obtainable)  we  can  reckon  the  power  developed  per 
minute. 

This  functional  power  of  the  stumps  differs  in  different 
subjects.  Therefore,  in  comparing  the  sound  limb  with  the 
amputated  limb,  we  should  make  the  same  measurements  in 
the  case  of  a  number  of  subjects,  and  from  these  deduce  the 
average  values.  From  observations  conducted  in  the  case  of 
200  persons  who  had  suffered  amputation  of  the  upper  arm, 
fore-arm,  thigh,  or  lower  leg,  we  have  calculated  the  functional 
power  of  a  stump  of  a  given  length,  the  length  of  the  normal 
segment  being  assumed  to  be  100. 

CX.  Data  Resulting  from  Measurements  of  the  Power 
of  Stumps.1 

AMPLITUDE   IN  DEGREES. 
A, — UPPER  LIMB. 
(a)    Upper  Arm.2 

32  to  13  centimetres 
12  to  7 

6  to  5  „ 

4 

1  It  is  needless  to  remark  that  the  work  performed  and  the  length  of  the  stump 
enable  us  to  calculate  the  force  exerted  by  the  latter. 
-  Length  from  the  armpit. 


Anterior. 

Posterior. 

Total. 

Tot.  Power. 

140° 

90° 

230° 

100 

100° 

52° 

152° 

64 

85° 

45° 

130° 

44 

55° 

25° 

80° 

9 

246 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


(6)  Fore- Arm.1 

24  to  12  centimetres 
11  to  7 
6  to  4 
Less  than  4  centimetres 

B. — LOWER  LIMB. 

(a)  Thigh.2 

40  to  18  centimetres 
17  to  10 
9  to  6 
5 
4 

(b)  Lower  Leg.* 

38  to  17  centimetres 
16  to  7 


Flexion  of  140° 

„       125° 

95° 

90° 


100 
68 
40 
negligible- 


Anterior. 

Posterior. 

Tot;  1. 

Tot.  Power. 

110° 

40° 

150° 

100 

70° 

32° 

102° 

62 

55° 

30° 

85° 

38 

40° 

28° 

68° 

24 

. . .     incapat  le  of  ut  ilisation. 

Flexion  of  125°  100 

„       110°  73 

„         SO0       negligible. 


The  values  given  in  this  table  present  a  certain  analogy 
and  convey  a  good  deal  of  information. 

In  particular  we  note  that  no  stump  less  than  4  centimetres 
(1-6  inches)  in  length  can  usefully  be  fitted  with  a  prothclic 
appliance.  If  the  length  of  the  stump  is  from  4  to  6  centi- 
metres (1-6  inches  to  2-4  inches)  in  the  case  of  the  fore-arm, 
and  not  less  than  9  centimetres  (3-6  inches)  in  the  case  of  the 
thigh,  the  prothetic  appliance  should  be  so  devised  that 
neither  the  amplitude  nor  the  strength  available  is  diminished 
thereby.  We  shall  consider  this  point  later  on. 

CXI.  Histo-Physiological  Modifications  of  the  Stumps. 

— But  the  power  of  a  stump  does  not  express  the  whole  of 
its  functional  capacity.  The  solidarity  of  the  nerve-elements, 
sensory  and  motor,  reveals  itself  in  such  wise  that  the  least 
hypo-aesthesia  diminishes  the  dexterity  of  the  movements 
and  the  output  of  prothetic  appliances.  Accordingly,  it 
is  important  that  we  should  know  what  changes  are  produced 
by  amputation  in  the  histo-physiological  conditions  of  a  stump. 
These  are  trophic  disorders  and  sensitive  disorders. 

1  Length  from  the  crease  produced  on  the  inner  face  of  the  arm  by  the  flexion 
of  the  el  bow -joint. 

2  Length  from  the  inguinal  crease. 

1  Length  from  the  articulation  of  the  knee. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  247 

A.  Trophic  Disorders  due  to  Amputation. — Of  the  trophic 
modifications  the  most  rapid  is  that  of  the  muscular  fibres  ; 
their  diameter  is  reduced  ;  and  those  which  have  been  bisected 
form  new  tendinous  insertions  at  the  expense  of  their  con- 
tractile substance.  The  result  is  that  their  power  of  contraction 
is  more  restricted  ;  that  is,  there  is  a  loss  of  absolute  strength  ; 
while  as  the  insertion  is  nearer  the  articulation  a  greater 
effort  is  necessary  for  the  execution  of  a  given  movement. 

Normally  the  shortening  of  the  bony  lever  actuated  by  the 
muscles  should  have  led  to  an  increase  of  their  diameter. 
That  this  is  not  the  case  in  the  stumps  of  amputated  limbs  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  nervous  elements,  without  which 
the  vitality  of  the  muscular  fibres  disappears,  are  the  seat  of 
a  degeneration  which  is  favoured  by  the  absence  of  movement. 
This  degeneration  is  accompanied  by  fatty  infiltrations,  in 
the  nerves  as  well  as  in  all  the  cells.  The  transverse  section 
of  the  stump  reveals,  at  its  edges,  in  the  region  of  the  flaps, 
where  these  exist,  very  strongly  marked  signs  of  these  histo- 
logical  transformations.  They  are  extremely  inconvenient 
when  it  comes  to  providing  the  patient  with  prothetic  appli- 
ances, since  the  latter  obtain  a  hold  without  provoking  the 
sensibility,  which  for  the  performance  of  the  ordinary  actions 
of  everyday  life  one  would  wish  to  preserve  unimpaired. 

More  slowly  than  the  other  tissues,  those  of  the  skeleton 
evolve  in  their  turn.  Our  observations  of  experiments  made 
upon  frogs  during  the  last  six  months  or  so  have  enabled  us 
to  verify  the  production  of  a  certain  osseous  rarefaction  in  the 
stumps  of  amputated  limbs,  the  density  of  the  divided  femur 
being  less  than  that  of  the  intact  femur.  Moreover,  investiga- 
tions of  longer  continuance,  in  the  case  of  animal  species 
capable  of  great  muscular  efforts,  proved  that  the  layers  of 
spongy  tissue  change  their  character,  and  adopt  a  new  mode 
of  resistance.  We  must  therefore  always  remember  that 
the  power  of  the  stump  is  diminished  and  its  vitality  decreased. 

CXI  I. — B.  Sensory  Disorders  due  to  Amputation — Sensory 
Education. — -From  the  standpoint  of  nervous  development, 
every  victim  of  amputation  possesses  a  diminished  field  of 


248         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

sensibility.  The  sum  of  these  sensations  originating  in  the 
cutaneous  surface  of  the  mutilated  member  is  not  sufficient 
to  maintain  the  normal  rate  of  cellular  reaction ;  hence  the 
trophic  disorders  observed  ;  for  the  phenomena  of  nutrition 
are  indirectly  stimulated  by  the  external  impressions  which 
evoke  the  motor  nerve-impulse. 

Moreover,  the  sensibility  of  the  stumps  upon  contact  or  under 
pressure  is  diminished,  and  the  nerve-centres,  disconnected 
from  their  normal  anatomical  connections,  interpret  the 
sensations  wrongly. 

Sensibility  of  the  Stumps. — As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  trans- 
versal surface  of  the  stump  is  by  no  means  very  sensitive  to 
touch.  An  exploration  of  this  surface  by  means  of  the 
aesthesiometer  (Weber's  type)  with  two  ivory  points,  shows 
that  the  points  must  be  separated  by  about  20  millimetres 
(four-fifths  of  an  inch)  before  they  become  perceptible,  whereas 
in  the  fingers  a  separation  of  2  millimetres  (about  one-twelfth 
of  an  inch)  is  sufficient.  Despite  this  hypo-aesthesia,  the 
section  is  more  sensitive  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  cicatrix 
than  on  the  lateral  surface  of  the  stump.  Thus,  a  subject 
whose  arm  had  been  amputated  about  the  middle  of  the 
humerus  yielded  the  following  data :  Near  the  cicatrix, 
17  mm.  ;  at  the  edges  of  the  extremity,  22  mm.  ;  on  the 
lateral  surface,  30  mm. 

When  a  terminal  flap  exists,  its  sensibility  is  uncertain  ; 
sometimes  it  is  negligible,  in  which  case  fatty  degeneration 
may  be  observed. 

A  second  important  feature  is  that  of  the  lateral  transfer,  or 
referred  perception.  A  point  on  the  transverse  surface  is 
touched  ;  the  tactile  sensation  is  perceived  at  a  point  of  the 
lateral  surface,  situated  on  the  generator  adjacent  to  the  spot 
which  is  touched.  In  proportion  as  the  amputation  is  more 
recent  and  the  stump  more  atrophied  it  is  perceived  further 
from  the  plane  of  section. 

The  phenomenon  of  the  transfer  is  constantly  observed  in 
subjects  who  have  suffered  amputation  of  the  arms  and  legs, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  definitive. 

The  education  and  the  sensory  re-adaptation  of  the  stump 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


249 


correct  these  errors  of  localisation.  They  are  effected  by 
means  of  suitably  regulated  exercises.  The  patient  actuates 
with  his  stump  the  splint  of  the  ergometric  cycle,  overcoming 
resistances  which  are  gradually  varied.  Intelligence  and 
attention  will  help  him  to  appreciate  these  variations. 


FIG.  81. — Sensory  Education  of  a  Subject  who  is  Blind  and  has  suffered 
double  Amputation,  by  means  of  the  weighted  Bracelet. 


But  we  must  continue  with  an  exacter  method,  employing 
the  bracelet  with  adjustable  weights.  This  is  placed  at  the 
extremity  of  the  stump,  and  weights  are  placed  upon  the  sus- 
pended disc,  and  are  diminished  daily.  The  subject,  whose 
eyes  are  blindfolded,  has  to  say  whether  weight  has  been 
added  or  removed,  whether  it  is  still  the  same,  whether  it 
has  been  diminished,  and  by  how  much — all  information 


250          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

which  has  to  be  elicited  from  the  patient.  Then  the  bracelet 
is  moved  along  the  stump,  in  order  to  explore  its  sensibility.1 
By  means  of  a  small  pressure  dynamometer  it  is  discovered 
that  the  stump  reacts  in  varying  degrees  according  to  the 
point  stimulated.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  cicatrix 
the  perceptible  pressure  is,  on  an  average,  20  grammes  lers 
than  that  which  is  required  on  the  edges  of  the  stump,  and 
75  grammes  less  than  that  required  on  the  lateral  surface. 
And  the  phenomenon  of  referred  perception  is  observed  as 
long  as  the  absolute  value  of  the  pressure  does  not  exceed  300 
grammes.  Sensory  education  overcomes  this  hypo-aesthesis, 
notably  to  the  advantage  of  the  blind,  for  whom  a  special 
method  must  be  employed  (as  will  be  seen  further  on). 

CXIII.  Weir -Mitchell's  Phenomenon.2 — There  is  another 
peculiarity  to  be  observed  in  those  who  have  suffered  amputa- 
tion, which  Weir-Mitchell  was  the  first  to  insist  upon  (1867). 
I  am  referring  to  the  illusion  suffered  by  all  such  persons,  to 
the  effect  that  they  can  still  feel,  and  still  possess,  the  portion 
of  the  limb  which  has  been  amputated,  which  they  feel  to 
be  nearer  the  stump  than  it  was  in  reality.  This  illusion  is 
preceded  by  a  sensation  of  tingling  or  formication,  the  seat 
of  which  is  close  to  the  cicatrix. 

Accepting  the  lifelong  persistence  of  this  hallucination,  the 
American  scientist  concluded  that  the  origin  of  all  our  actions 
is  central,  cerebral,  and  not  in  any  wise  peripheral.  We 
conceive  and  determine  our  movements  in  the  brain,  nothing 
external  to  us  provoking  them  ;  the  sensibility  has  no  part 
in  them. 

My  experiments  are  far  from  confirming  the  views  of 
Weir-Mitchell.  The  phenomenon  described  by  him  is  not 
permanent ;  re-education  causes  its  disappearance  in  a  few 
months,  and  the  resumption  of  daily  work  destroys  the  last 
traces  of  it. 

It  is  during  inaction,  in  hours  of  idleness  made  gloomy  by 
anxiety,  and  in  wet  weather,  that  the  painful  sensation  of 

1  C.R.   Acad.  Sc.,  2  and  16  October,  1916,  Vol.  CLXIIL,  pp.  335  and  401. 
a  Weir-Mitchell's  Lesions  of  the  Nerves. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPFLES  251 

the  "  phantom  "  limb  occurs.  What  is  more,  the  patient 
feels  only  the  terminal  segment,  the  hand  or  foot,  but  never  the 
intermediate  segment ;  and  he  is  conscious  of  it  such  as 
it  habitually  was,  in  the  dynamic  condition,  the  hand 
gripping  the  tool,  the  foot  set  in  the  position  which  the  patient's 
calling  requires.  He  is  not  conscious  of  formication  during 
the  night,  but  the  latter  feeling  awakens  with  the  memory 
of  industrial  or  professional  life,  so  that  it  results  from  a  mental 
and  a  physiological  cause. 

Weir-Mitchell's  phenomenon  admits  only  the  first  of  these 
causes.  But  the  second  is  the  more  essential,  and  is  related 
to  the  sensori-motor  cycle.  By  the  very  fact  that  the  sensory 
education  of  the  stump  results  in  the  cessation  of  referred 
perception  and  the  illusion  of  the  absent  member,  completely 
correcting  the  reference  of  sensation  to  its  external  causes, 
there  is  no  possibility  of  doubt  that  sensibility  governs  all  our 
actions  ;  the  periphery  of  the  organism  is  physiologically 
connected  with  the  nerve-centres.  Thus  it  is  that  the  child 
forms  an  accurate  conception  of  actual  space  and  its  relative 
distances. 

The  theory  of  formication  is  supposed  to  be  as  follows  : 
Impressions  may  travel  along  any  sensitive  path.  For 
example,  if  the  hand  is  amputated  impressions  from  the 
fore-arm  and  upper  arm  reach  the  nerve-centres.  The  motor 
reaction  emanating  from  the  latter  is  checked  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  motor  nerves,  which  are  here  interrupted  by  the 
amputation.  Now  the  section  established  by  this  amputation  is 
a  surface  all  of  whose  nervous  elements  are  deadened,  and  more 
often  than  not  affected  by  degeneration  ;  such  a  surface 
constitutes  a  screen,  and  the  motor  reaction  communicates 
its  impulse  to  the  recurrent  fibres,  and  this  gives  rise  to  a  special 
formication. 

CXIV. — Experience  shows,  then,  that  the  re-education 
of  stumps  improves  their  physiological  condition,  re-adapts 
them,  and  lessens  the  danger  of  nervous  degeneration.  .It 
enables  the  stumps  to  act  upon  the  prothetic  appliances 
fitted  to  them  with  a  perfectly  graduated  force,  and  an  im- 


252 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


proved  utilisation  of  the  tactile  sense  and  the  muscular  sense. 
This  is  highly  important,  particularly  in  the  victims  of  a  double 
amputation,  or  those  who  have  lost  their  sight  as  well  as  one 
or  more  limbs. 

To  these  advantages,  which  are  of  great  value  in  ortho- 


FIG.  82. — Examination  of  the  organic  condition  of  a  War-Cripple. 

paedic  surgery,  we  may  add  the  moral  advantage  of  bestowing 
upon  the  war-cripple  a  certain  sense  of  energy,  and  a  feeling 
of  hope  as  regards  the  future. 

CXV.  The  Re -Education  and  the  Organic  Condition  of 
War-Cripples. — Re-education  is  not  confined  to  the  motor 
organs  ;  it  is  being  extended  increasingly  to  all  the  agents  of 
human  activity  ;  to  those  which  dispense  energy  (the  heart  and 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


253 


lungs)  and  those  which  maintain  our  relations  with  the  outer 
world  (the  senses).     It  is  indeed  possible,  as  we  have  seen,  to  re- 


adapt  the  sense  of  touch,  a  sense  very  highly  developed  in  the 
blind,  and  a  sense  upon  which  the  prothesis  of  the  upper  limbs 
is  very  largely  dependent.  The  sense  of  hearing,  diminished  as 


254 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


the  result  of  accidents  to  the  outer  ear,  appears  also  to  be 
capable  of  substantial  improvement ;  but  of  this  I  have  no 
personal  experience.  And  everybody  knows  that  the  sense 
of  sight  is  susceptible,  after  appropriate  treatment,  of  remark- 
able ameliorations. 


Pathological     Tonogram*. 


Insp.          Resting. 


A  n 


wvtr 


/ifter  3  minutes'  work  on  the  Cycle  at  168  rev* 
Brake  load.  22  /6< 

The  subject  (KerForn)  is  emphysematous  (aged  31  years, 
illness    or  II  month's  standing.). 


Fifths  of  a  second 


FIG.  84. — Respirations  while  Resting,  while  Working,  and  after  Working,  in  ai 
Emphysematic  Subject. 


What  I  can  assert  in  this  connection  is,  that  most  of  the 
senses  are  blunted  as  a  result  of  nervous  disorders  or  shock, 
and  also  as  a  result  of  traumatisms  of  the  skull.  When  the 
patient  has  recovered  we  find  the  senses  recovering  their 
acuteness,  under  the  influence  of  constant  and  intelligently 
supervised  exercise. 


THE    RE-ED.UCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLESj  255 

But  we  must  understand  how  to  detect  not  only  the  defi- 
ciencies of  the  sensorial  organs,  but  also  the  affections  of  the 
heart,  the  vascular  system,  and  the  lungs,  in  order  that 
we  may  with  certainty  determine  the  physical  aptitude  of  the 
war-cripple,  and  his  degree  of  endurance.  In  the  first  place 
there  should  be  a  preliminary  examination  with  reference  to 
the  thoracic  and  morphological  characteristics.  Then  comes 
the  clinical  examination.  We  then  consider,  as  objective 
documents,  the  pneumographic  and  cardiographic  tracings 
obtained  after  fatiguing  exercise  on  the  ergographic  cycle. 
This  exercise  usually  takes  the  form  of  a  ten  minutes'  "  ride  " 
at  a  pace  of  200  revolutions  per  minute,  the  resistance  of  the 
brake  being  6-6  Ibs.  (Fig.  82). 

The  tracings  reproduced  in  Fig.  83,  for  example,  which 
were  obtained  before,  during,  and  after  such  exercise,  show 
that  the  cardiograms  of  patients  who  have  suffered  a  recent 
amputation  are  of  feeble  amplitude  ;  the  systoles  are  lacking 
in  vigour,  and  as  a  result  the  arterial  pressure  is  diminished. 
But  this  phenomenon  is  ephemeral  ;  re-education  restores  the 
heart  to  its  normal  mode  of  action. 

In  the  lungs  we  observe  dyspnoea,  with  frequent  and  pro- 
found respirations,  whenever  the  ventilation  is  insufficient, 
or  is  obstructed  by  a  physiological  cause  (Fig.  84).  In  this 
connection  the  subject  may  even  practise  respiratory  gymnastics, 
combined  with  medical  treatment.  I  consider  that  the  organic 
condition  of  our  war-cripples,  if  we  do  not  wish  it  presently 
to  deteriorate,  should  be  kept  under  observation  by  physicians 
who  would  act  both  as  re-educators  arid  clinicians ;  perhaps 
more  particularly  as  the  former. 

It  still  remains  to  accomplish  the  diagnosis  of  the  menial 
condition.  The  present  war  has  drawn  the  attention  of  all  to 
this  subject.  Terrible  in  its  effects,  it  has  shaken  the  higher 
nerve-centres,  and  has  often  disordered  the  proper  functioning 
of  the  brain.  It  has  predisposed  thousands  of  wounded  soldiers 
to  intellectual  disorders,  phobias,  hallucinations,  and  various 
psychoses  (disorders  of  the  will)  which  are  as  yet  obscure. 

If  we  devote  ourselves  to  the  task  of  re-educating  infirm 
and  crippled  soldiers,  our  principal  pre-occupation  must 


256          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

consist  in  guarding  them  against  their  own  moral  dejection, 
and  in  restoring  their  self-confidence.  To  learn  how  to  speak 
to  them,  to  sound  their  preferences,  to  divine  their  tastes, 
and  to  enable  them  to  realise  the  progress  of  their  re-education, 
its  progress,  and  the  merit  of  work ;  herein  lies  the  whole  of 
the  veritable  art  of  re-education,  in  which  human  science 
and  our  duty  to  the  nation  are  combined. 

Accordingly,  before  entrusting  one  of  our  wounded  soldiers 
to  the  workshop  or  the  office,  before  fitting  him  with  a  pro- 
thetic  appliance,  it  is  indispensable  that  we  shall  have  obtained 
the  maximum  improvement  in  his  functional  condition  and 
his  resistance  to  fatigue;  we  must  have  analysed  the  move- 
ments which  he  is  still  capable  of  making,  in  respect  of 
precision,  amplitude,  and  force.  These  data  furnish  informa- 
tion useful  to  employer  and  employed  alike  ;  they  will  inspire 
them  with  all  the  confidence  in  science  which  the  latter 
deserves,  and  which  make  it  the  highest  form  of  social  economy. 


CHAPTER    XI 
THE  RE-EDUCATION  OF  WAR-CRIPPLES 

II. — SCIENTIFIC  PROTHESIS 

CXVI. — 1.  PRINCIPLES. — Let  us  now  consider  the  problem 
of  prothetic  appliances;  one  of  the  most  important  of  all 
the  problems  which  are  included  in  the  subject  of  professional 
re-education.  Our  makers  of  prothetic  appliances  will 
have  to  make  greater  efforts  to  adapt  their  appliances  to  the 
work  of  the  war-cripple.  The  essential  object  of  pro  thesis, 
indeed,  is  not  to  replace  a  lost  limb  or  segment  of  a  limb, 
but  to  supplement  or  replace  a  lost  or  badly  impaired  function. 
Although  by  definition  prothesis  is  anatomical,  it  is,  in  fact, 
physiological  and  utilitarian.  While  copying  nature,  it  is 
not  the  slave  of  nature,  because  it  is  obliged  to  proportion  the 
weight  and  the  dimensions  of  the  artificial  organs  to  the  muscular 
power  still  available. 

As  the  etymology  of  the  word  informs  us,  prothesis  (from 
the  Greek  TrpoaGsau;  =  addition)  consists  in  the  addition  of 
mechanisms  or  appliances  which  restore  or  facilitate  the 
exercise  of  the  original  function. 

It  must  therefore  consider  the  functional  condition  ;  it 
must  even  favour  its  improvement ;  and  it  must  protect  the 
stump  from  all  causes  of  pain  and  fatigue.  The  last  point 
lies,  of  course,  within  the  competence  of  the  surgeon  ;  he 
a! one  can  judge  of  the  possibility  of  saving  a  maximum 
useful  length  of  the  member,  and  of  saving  it  in  such  a  condition 
as  will  allow  the  prothetic  appliance  to  be  firmly  attached 
to  it ;  he,  too,  is  in  a  position  to  make  sure  that  nothing 
remains  in  the  stump,  neither  bony  splinters,  nor  traces  of 

s  257 


258          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

irritation  or  suppuration,  nor  any  cause  of  pain,  which  might 
delay  the  intervention  of  prothesis.  Five  or  six  weeks  must 
be  allowed  to  elapse  after  complete  cicatrisation  before  an 
appliance  is  fitted  to  the  stump  ;  as  a  rule  the  latter  retracts 
and  diminishes  in  volume,  becoming  firmer.  Exercises, 
suitably  regulated,  set  it  developing  in  the  right  direction  ; 
they  revive  the  humoral  activity  and  maintain  the  cellular 
vitality  by  which  the  foci  of  osteitis  and  the  menace  of  degenera- 
tion are  destroyed.  The  limb  is  then  ready.  Prothesis  will 
now  set  to  work,  and  all  the  ingenuity  of  mechanical  science 
will  be  required  for  the  task  of  devising  the  artificial  organ 
and  adapting  it  to  its  function.  Ingenuity  is  the  right  word  ; 
for,  while  he  may  utilise  the  principles  of  cinematography 
in  the  ordering  of  component  parts,  the  maker  of  prothetic 
appliances  must  have  that  love  of  experimental  research 
which  surprises  and  imitates  natural  actions. 

Fontenelle  relates  that  a  priest,  Father  Sebastien,  used  in 
his  time  to  excel  in  this  art  of  delicate  and  ingenious  invention. 
So  great  was  his  reputation  that  a  Swedish  gentleman  even 
repaired  to  Paris  to  ask  him,  so  to  speak,  to  restore  his  two 
hands,  which  a  cannon-ball  had  carried  away,  nothing  being 
left  but  the  stumps  of  the  fore-arms.  It  was  therefore  necessary 
to  make  two  artificial  hands,  controlled  by  the  said  stumps, 
whose  movement  would  be  transferred,  by  suitable  wires, 
to  flexible  fingers.  Father  Sebastien  was  not  dismayed  by  the 
task,  and,  it  is  said,  submitted  some  interesting  specimens  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Profiting  by  all  the  progress  accomplished  in  the  mechanical 
arts,  it  is  possible,  in  this  connection,  to  carry  virtuosity  to 
a  very  great  length.  But  there  are  principles  from  which 
prothesis  must  be  careful  not  to  depart.  We  may  formulate 
them  as  follows  : — 

(a)  To  devise  prothetic  appliances  which  can  be  firmly 
and  strongly  attached,  without  impeding  the  movements 
involved,  or  those  of  other  articulations  ; 

(6)  To  adapt  these  appliances,  in  respect  of  weight  and 
dimensions,  to  the  strength  of  the  stumps  ; 

(c)  To  fit  appliances  for  the  upper  limbs  with  an  organ  of 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  259 

prehension  which  will  permit  of  protracted  and  varied  employ- 
ment. 

These  threefold  conditions  guarantee  strength,  simplicity, 
and  a  good  output  in  prothetic  appliances  ;  resulting  in  the 
always  desirable  employment  of  human  energy  in  professions 
to  which  it  might  have  seemed  that  the  war-cripple  could  never 
gain  access. 

CXVII.  The  Utilisation  of  the  Stumps. — Let  us  analyse 
the  problem  more  closely.  Whether  a  leg  or  an  arm  is  in  question 
— for  the  moment  I  am  neglecting  the  lesser  mutilations—- 
the aim  is  to  fit  upon  the  stump  an  appliance  which  replaces 
the  amputated  segment,  and  which  is  mechanically  controlled 
by  the  muscular  force  still  available.  Now  anatomy  and 
physiology  teach  us  what  movements  have  been  suppressed, 
and  must  be  re-established,  and  in  what  measure  the  stump 
will  be  able  to  produce  them,  as  regards  their  force  and 
amplitude.  These  details  are  familiar  ;  we  will  only  remark 
that  the  articulation  of  the  shoulder  and  that  of  the  hip  are 
the  fundamental  articulations  ;  each  controls  the  whole  member 
of  which  it  forms  a  part,  and  ensures  its  effectual  action  ; 
the  muscles  actuating  these  joints  possess  a  development 
which  enables  them  to  assist  in  distributing  the  motive  force 
to  the  lesser  segments. 

There  is  always  a  limit  to  the  rational  utilisation  of  the  stump. 

For  the  upper  limbs  this  limit  is  reached  in  the  case  of 
amputations  which  leave  a  stump  of  not  more  than  two  inches 
in  length,  measured  from  the  line  of  the  armpit.  At  this 
level  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  especially  the  deltoid  and 
the  infra-spinatus,  are  incapable  of  effecting,  by  their  con- 
traction, all  the  requisite  displacements  of  the  bony  lever 
into  which  they  are  inserted. 

In  those  whose  fore-arm  is  amputated  the  strength  of  the 
upper  arm  is  evidently  complete,  unless  there  is  some  accident 
of  a  pathological  order,  such  as  anchylosis  or  atrophy.  The 
strength  of  the  fore-arm  may  be  regarded  as  sufficient  when  the 
stump  measures  two  inches  from  the  internal  crease  of  the 
elbow ;  it  is  complete  when  the  stump  is  four  inches  and 


260          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL.  ORGANISATION 

more  in  length,  the  flexion,  supination,  and  pronation  being 
complete.  If  the  stump  is  less  than  four  inches  in  length 
the  loss  suffered  by  the  humero-radial  articulation  is 
difficult  to  make  up  for.  However,  it  will  hardly  be  felt  in 
the  ordinary  actions  of  everyday  life,  as  long  as  the  shoulder 
retains  its  complete  liberty  of  circumduction. 

Anchylosis  of  the  elbow,  on  the  other  hand,  creates  a  func- 
tional impediment  of  a  somewhat  serious  nature,  as  it  deprives 
this  articulation — which  is  mobile  rather  than  powerful — of 
the  possibility  of  guiding  the  movements  of  the  fore-arm, 
by  automatically  modifying  its  inclination  toward  the  upper 
arm.  This  defect  is  revealed  by  a  painful  oscillation  of  the 
trunk  and  shoulder. 

CXVIII. — In  the  lower  limbs,  the  mobility  of  the  stump  of 
the  thigh  is  not  of  absolute  importance  :  it  is  enough  that  it 
should  guarantee  the  possibility  of  walking  by  allowing  an 
angular  movement  of  30°.  Physiologically,  any  stump  which 
measures  more  than  two  inches  from  the  inguinal  crease  will 
fulfil  this  condition.  But  its  length  is  not  a  matter  of  indiffer- 
ence in  connection  with  the  wearing  of  a  prothetic  appliance. 
If  the  lever  is  too  short  it  will  diminish  the  adhesion  of  the 
thigh-piece,  and  may  compromise  the  solidity  of  its  attach- 
ment. This  will  compel  us  to  resort  to  more  and  more  powerful 
means  of  attachment,  which  we  shall  seek,  if  possible,  in  the 
pelvic  girdle.  If  the  points  of  attachment  are  too  remote 
they  are  defective,  because  in  the  long  run  they  create  an 
asymmetry  of  the  body  and  excessive  fatigue,  and  because 
they  interpose,  between  the  appliance  and  its  attachment, 
a  mobile  system,  subject  to  deformation,  in  which  there  will 
inevitably  be  a  certain  amount  of  play.  Therefore  the  factors 
of  a  correct  prothesis  are  short  paths  of  transmission  and  a 
symmetrical  distribution  of  the  surface  of  insertion. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  lower  leg.  However,  if 
the  knee-joint  controls  only  a  small  stump  (as  in  the  case  of 
amputation  at  the  so-called  "  point  of  election  "  )  the  appliance 
will  none  the  less  allow  of  normal  locomotion.  Any  segment 
less  than  2-8  inches  in  length  will  be  unsuitable  for  walking 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  261 

with  a  free  knee-joint ;  it  will  be  necessary  to  flex  it 
and  to  walk  on  the  knee,  as  in  the  case  of  intra-condylar 
amputation. 

CXIX. — The  stumps  resulting  from  minor  mutilations  are 
those  of  the  fingers,  the  metacarpus,  etc.  Here  the  functional 
value  demands  the  closest  attention  and  careful  experiment. 
Let  us  suppose  that  the  phalanges  are  lost.  In  the  four  fingers 
of  the  hand — not  counting  the  thumb — the  two  terminal 
phalanges  are  replaceable  ;  but  the  sensibility  is  not  replaced, 
or  rather  it  is  only  partially  replaced,  by  the  contact  of  the 
prothetic  appliance  with  the  stump.  Or  if  the  four  fingers 
are  completely  lost  it  will  still  be  possible  to  replace  them  by 
artificial  segments  affixed  to  the  metacarpus.  Any  mutilation 
nearer  the  wrist  complicates  the  prothetic  apparatus,  but 
should  never  make  it  impossible  to  devise  a  block  of  artificial 
fingers  which  can  be  opposed  to  the  thumb.  The  patient  will 
therefore  retain  the  means  of  employing  his  hands  with  a 
sufficient  degree  of  dexterity. 

It  must  always  be  remembered  that  the  office  of  the  hand 
is,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  that  of  a  vice  or  pair  of 
pincers;  the  thumb  is  opposed  to  the  joint  action  of  the 
fingers  ;  hence  its  Greek  name  of  anti-hand  (avrixelp),  which 
is  more  expressive  than  the  Latin  root  pollere,  which  means 
to  be  powerful.  In  the  function  of  the  thumb  there  is  a  geo- 
metrical element,  that  of  opposition,  and  a  dynamic  element, 
that  of  the  strength  which  the  hand  would  cease  to  exert 
without  it. 

A  reduction  of  the  number  of  the  fingers  affects  both  the 
foregoing  factors ;  it  impairs  the  solidarity  necessary  for 
precision  of  movement,  and  the  distribution  of  the  efforts 
applied  to  a  given  tool  or  instrument. 

If  we  reckon  the  crushing  effort  between  thumb  and  index 
finger  to  be  15-4  Ibs.,  it  will  be  22  Ibs.  with  the  added  effort 
of  the  middle  finger,  and  26-4  Ibs.  if  the  third  finger  is  added 
to  the  first  and  second.  The  fourth  finger  adds  practically 
nothing  to  the  crushing  effort.  Its  function  is  one  of 
.guidance. 


262         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

As  for  the  thumb  itself,  it  can  be  replaced  by  an  artificial 
thumb,  without  a  joint  to  the  first  phalange.  But  in 
the  absence  of  the  metacarpal  bone  its  function  is  greatly 
diminished. 

CXX.  Mechanical  Factors. — From  another  point  of  view 
the  functional  value  of  the  stumps  is  connected  with  the 
mass  and  the  dimensions  of  the  prothetic  organs,  the  mechan- 
isms which  they  have  not  merely  to  control,  but,  in  the  first 
place,  to  carry.  On  principle  we  shall  distribute  the  heavy 
parts  of  the  appliance  around  the  stump,  either  supporting 
them  directly  by  means  of  the  latter,  or  assembling  them 
around  it.  The  less  weighty  portions,  on  the  other  hand, 
will  be  at  the  periphery. 

It  is  obvious  that  hollow  organs  and  parabolic  forms  present 
great  advantages  in  this  respect.  Nature  creates  such  in 
the  branches  of  trees  and  the  pinions  of  birds. 

The  maximum  of  resistance  with  the  minimum  of  mass  is  a 
fundamental  law  of  the  construction  of  the  artificial  limb,  whose 
meaning  is  explained  by  the  absence  of  multiple  motor  forces. 
In '  the  lower  limbs,  for  example,  the  muscles  repeat  and 
co-ordinate  their  efforts,  from  the  coxo-femoral  articulations 
to  the  articulations  of  the  foot,  so  that  it  is  not  merely  the 
pelvic  musculature  which  actuates  the  various  segments  of 
the  limb.  Now  in  the  artificial  limb  a  single  control,  a  single 
motive  force,  is  often  required  to  actuate  several  artificial 
segments.  We  shall  therefore  seek  as  far  as  possible  to  reduce 
the  mass,  that  is,  the  inertia,  of  these  segments,  and  also  the 
radius  of  the  round  moving  parts,  the  length  remaining 
what  it  should  be  anatomically.  Under  these  conditions 
we  diminish  what  the  mathematician  calls  the  moment 
of  inertia  of  the  limb.  Finally,  mechanical  considerations, 
which  I  cannot  enter  into  here,  show  that  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  apparatus  should  always  be  close  to  its  axis  of 
oscillation. 

In  the  case  of  a  well-proportioned  man  of  average  build, 
the  segments  of  the  body  give  the  following  numerical 
values  : 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


263 


Segment  of          Weight  in 
Body.  Kilogrammes. 


Percent,  of 
Body  Weight. 


Length  in 
Metres. 


(Metres) 


Moment  ol 
Inertia.2 


Head    ... 

4-590 

7-06                0-16 

Upper  arm 
Fore-arm 

2-180 
1-480 

1x2 

3-36 

2-28 

0-35 

x  2      0-24 

0-165 
0-100 

!  0-32 

0-00244] 

0-0247 

Hand    ... 

0-550 

J 

0-84 

0-19 

[  0-0035oJ 

Thigh    ... 

7-530 

) 

11-58  I               0-45 

0-200 

'   0-01500] 

Lower  leg 

3-425 

1x2 

5-27  1x2     0-443 

0-185 

>0-38 

0-00800  I 

0 

1003 

Foot      ... 

1-165 

J 

1-79  j               0-26 

0-112 

1 

0-00070  J 

Trunk  ...  27-750 


42-70 


0-72 


Totals...  65-000  kgs.        100-00 


These  data  indicate  the  extreme  limits  of  weight ;  but  we 
must  be  guided  absolutely  by  the  functional  power  of  the 
stump,  determined  as  we  have  already  explained. 

For  the  choice  and  the  properties  of  the  materials  employed 
in  the  construction  of  prothetic  appliances,  I  must  refer  the 
reader  to  Le  Moteur  Humain  (Book  L).  It  is  enough  to  remark 
that  the  resistance  of  these  materials  (wood,  leather,  metal) 
is  especially  important  in  the  case  of  the  lower  limb,  which 
has  to  support  the  entire  weight  of  the  body  in  walking, 
and  which,  at  rapid  gaits,  has  to  stand  a  stress  25  per  cent,  to 
30  per  cent,  greater  than  the  weight  of  the  body.  The  necessity 
of  reducing  the  inertia  of  the  thigh-pieces  makes  us  advise 
the  employment  of  materials  which  are  specially  tough  and 
light,  such  as  three  or  four-ply  wood,  consisting  of  very  thin 
layers,  firmly  glued,  or  papier-mache,  or  duralumin,  which 
has  the  following  characteristics  : 

Density 

Limit  of  elasticity 
Tensile  strength  . . 
Elongation  on  rupture 


2-8 

27  kgs.  per  sq.  mm. 
36  kgs.  per  sq.  mm. 
17  per  cent. 


Sheet  Steel,  I  mm.  to  1-5  mm.  in  thickness  (^  to  T^  in.)  will 
answer  the  same  purpose.     But  the  metallic  sonority  of  steel 

1  Measured  from  the  superior  or  nearest  articulation. 

2  This  is  the  product  of  the  mass  and  the  square  of  the  radius  of  rotation,  a 
product  which  enters  into  the  calculation  of  the  energy  of  rotation  of  a  body. 
(See  Le  Moteur  Humain,  p.  54,  et  seq.) 

3  Including  the  height  of  the  foot  (6  centimetres). 


264         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

should  be  avoided  by  means  of  a  strongly  adhesive  covering 
of  parchment. 

Steel  will  always  be  employed  in  the  construction  of  working 
parts.  Prothesis  demands  steels  whose  composition  should 
be  more  or  less  as  follows  : 

Carbon  0-35  to  0-45 

Manganese     . .          . .          . .          . .     under  0-70 

Silicon  „   0-20 

Sulphur          „   0-05 

Phosphorus    . .          . .          . .          . .  „    0-05 

The  metal  will  be  heated  to  850°  ;  it  will  be  allowed  to  cool 
in  the  open  air  and  hardened  at  750°  ;  it  is  then  brought  back 
to  500°  for  a  space  of  30  minutes. 

Its  tensile  strength  is  100  kgs.  per  square  millimetre,  the 
elongation  being  10  per  cent. 

In  my  opinion,  the  use  of  pure  aluminium  should  be  aband- 
oned ;  it  tears  easily,  is  difficult  to  work  and  to  weld,  and  is 
lacking  in  toughness. 

This  survey,  which  is  necessarily  extremely  brief,  of  the 
objects  and  principles  of  scientific  pro  thesis,  will  enable 
us  now  to  glance  at  its  applications. 

CXXI. — -2.  APPLICATIONS. — The  capital  point  in  prothesis 
is  the  anatomo-plastic  application  of  the  appliances.  This 
demands  a  sound  knowledge  and  a  long  experience  of  the 
subject. 

Prothesis  of  the  Lower  Limb. — This  is  particularly  a  prothesis 
of  strength,  simple  or  graduated,  according  to  the  type  of 
appliance  which  it  is  intended  to  apply.  Simple  if  it  is 
desired  to  equip  persons  who  perform  exhausting  work,  and 
who  are  much  more  anxious  to  possess  a  solid  support  than 
an  actual  artificial  limb.  As  a  rule  in  this  case  we  do  not 
seek  to  obtain  regularity  of  gait.  The  cripple  adopts  the 
"  wooden-legged  "  style  of  locomotion,  the  "  wooden  leg  " 
being  either  rigid  or  jointed,  and  the  mode  of  locomotion  not 
unlike  that  of  a  stilt-walker. 

The  more  complicated  models  are  the  so-called  artificial 
legs,  whose  design  imitates  that  of  the  actual  limb,  in  order 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  265 

to  ensure  the  development  of  the  step,  in  all  the  phases  which 
compose  it.  This  harmony  is  inevitably  achieved  at  the  cost 
of  solidity,  on  account  of  the  number  of  articulations  which 
it  necessitates,  all  along  the  axis  of  support. 

I  shall  limit  the  series  of  models  considered  to  those  which 
seem  to  me  the  best,  and  which  at  the  present  time  con- 
stitute a  portion  of  the  specifications  recognised  by  the  military' 
orthopaedists  of  France.1 

CXXII. — A.  AMPUTATION  OF  THE  THIGH. — (a)  The11  Pestle" 
Type  with  Locking-Joint. — -In  the  case  of  patients  who  have 
suffered  amputation  of  the  thigh,  we  must  first  of  all  consider 
the  old-fashioned  "  wooden  leg,"  of  the  "  pestle "  type, 
jointed  at  the  knee,  but  with  a  locking-joint.  This  is  suited 
to  persons  of  rural  pursuits,  and  also  to  all  those  whose  work 
necessitates  much  moving  about,  and  causes  a  certain  amount 
of  fatigue.  The  rigid  or  non-articulated  wooden  leg,  which 
was  known  even  in  the  days  of  Pericles,  is  a  makeshift,  or, 
in  the  words  of  Pare,  "  the  poor  man's  leg." 

To-day  both  industrial  and  social  progress  condemn  the 
employment  of  such  a  wretched  and  primitive  prothesis. 

The  "  pestle  "  type  of  leg  with  the  lock,  on  the  other  hand, 
if  it  is  made  as  it  should  be,  offers  notable  advantages  over  its 
predecessor.  It  comprises  the  organ  of  attachment,  the  thigh- 
piece,  the  knee,  and  the  leg-piece. 

The  organ  of  attachment  consists  of  an  abdominal  girdle 
G,  a  brace,  B,  and  a  sling  (Fig.  85).  The  girdle  is  of  flexible 
leather,  1-6  inches  wide,  or  it  may  be  of  strong  ticking,  3-2 
inches  wide.  It  buckles  in  front.  It  is  joined  to  the  thigh- 
piece  by  means  of  a  hip-piece  H,  having  almost  the  shape  of 
a  letter  T,  which  is  made  of  steel.  The  horizontal  portion  of 
the  hip-piece,  riveted  and  brazed  to  the  vertical  portion,  is 
attached  by  means  of  two  rivets  to  the  belt,  which  is  divided 
for  the  purpose.  The  vertical  portion  contains  two  articula- 
tions ;  firstly  a  socket-joint  /,  situated  about  one-sixth  of 

1  Since  13  June,  1916.  The  results  of  the  labours  of  the  Specifications  Com- 
mission (Commission  du  Cahier  des  charges)  are  assembled  in  the  Prothetic 
Laboratory  of  the  Conservatoire  National  des  Arts  et  Metiers. 


Bilateral 
Locking-Bolt 
(From  back) 


Rubber 
Leather 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  267 

an  inch  behind  the  anatomical  coxo-femoral  articulation, 
working  in  the  antero-posterior  plane,  which  reaches  the  edge 
of  the  great  trochanter  ;  secondly,  a  hinge  h,  with  a  check 
which  limits  the  flexion  external  to  the  pelvis  to  30°  ;  it  is 
placed  immediately  beneath  the  horizontal  branch.  The 
vertex  is  -4  of  an  inch  behind  and  on  a  level  with  the  iliac 
crest. 

The  hip-piece  is  lined  with  leather  or  ticking,  and  is  padded. 
It  prolongs  the  external  standard,  S,  of  the  thigh-piece. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  it  fits  very  accurately  to  the  body, 
whose  shape  it  assumes. 

For  short  stumps  the  hinge  h  must  be  suppressed. 

The  brace  is  made  of  strong  elastic  webbing,  one  and  a  half 
inches  wide.  Its  extremities  are  riveted,  one  to  the  outer 
surface  of  the  thigh-piece,  toward  the  middle  of  the  body 
in  front,  and  the  other  to  the  side  at  the  back ;  it  buckles  in 
front,  after  passing  over  the  opposite  shoulder  ;  it  is  kept 
in  place  by  a  second  brace  which  passes  over  the  other  shoulder. 

Finally,  the  sling  consists  of  a  piece  of  catgut,  which  passes 
under  a  little  pulley,  P,  which  is  fixed  to  the  inner  standard 
of  the  thigh-piece  ;  it  is  attached  to  the  girdle  front  and  back 
by  means  of  straps  and  buckles. 

CXXIIL— The  thigh-piece,  T.P.,  is  a  conical  sheath,  of 
moulded  leather,  as  rigid  as  possible  (density  =  1),  lined  with 
very  tough  chamois  leather.  It  presents  a  comparatively 
flat  surface  corresponding  to  the  external  and  lateral  portion 
of  the  stump,  which  ensures  a  firm  attachment  (see  section). 

The  whole  of  the  supporting  surface  is  as  rigid  as  possible, 
and  of  reduced  thickness. 

The  sheath  is  armed  with  two  steel  standards,  S  and  S', 
about  nine-tenths  of  an  inch  in  width  and  one-sixth  of  an 
inch  in  thickness.  About  the  region  of  the  knee  this  thickness 
is  increased  to  one-fifth  of  an  inch.  These  standards  are 
parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  femur,  outside  and  inside,  and 
are  riveted  firmly  to  the  thigh-piece  with  copper  rivets.  A 
circular  hoop  of  mild  steel,  C,  also  riveted  (an  inch  and  a 
quarter  in  width  and  a  twelfth  of  an  inch  in  thickness),  unites 


268         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

the  lower  extremities  of  the  standards.  The  outer  standard 
is  pivoted  to  the  hip-piece,  as  we  have  seen. 

A  second  hoop,  or  rather  half-hoop,  of  nickel-plated  steel 
unites  the  two  standards  internally  toward  their  upper 
extremities.  One  end  of  it  overlaps  the  internal  standard 
by  two  inches  or  so,  and  then  turns  downwards.  The  hoop 
is  therefore  complete  at  the  back  and  open  in  front.  The 
postero-internal  portion  is  widely  splayed,  the  upper  edge 
being  turned  outward  from  the  axis  of  the  Hmb. 

The  thigh-piece  is  split  in  front  as  far  as  an  opening  V  which 
serves  as  a  ventilator,  and  here  the  two  halves  of  the  sheath 
are  united.  There  is  a  sufficient  interval  left  between  two 
rows  of  eyelet-holes  to  permit  of  the  progressive  tightening 
of  the  lace  as  the  stump  diminishes  in  size.  The  closing  of 
the  thigh-piece  is  completed  by  means  of  three  straps,  sewn 
and  riveted,  which  buckle  toward  the  side  of  the  outer 
standard. 

The  rim  of  the  thigh-piece  is  scalloped  on  the  postero- 
internal  edge,  corresponding  to  a  concave  line  of  ischial  support. 
This  portion  is  slightly  padded,  in  order  that  it  may  not  rub 
nor  inconvenience  the  opposite  thigh.  The  remainder  of  the 
rim  is  convex  in  form,  bending  inwards,  and  higher  at  the 
level  of  the  hip-piece.  The  thigh,  supporting  the  ischium, 
is  thus  gripped  on  every  side,  and  cannot  turn  in  the  thigh- 
piece. 

This  latter,  finally,  terminates  in  a  separate  leather  cap, 
stamped  or  hammered,  and  seamless,  which  is  riveted  to  and 
strengthened  by  the  lower  steel  hoop,  which,  like  the  upper 
hoop,  is  nickel-plated. 

CXXIV. — The  knee  comprises  a  stirrup  of  forged  steel, 
fixed  by  two  screws  to  the  standards,  which  are  curved  in 
such  a  way  as  to  keep  the  axis  of  the  articulation  two-fifths 
of  an  inch  to  the  rear  of  a  vertical  line  dropped  from  the 
coxo-femoral  articulation.  The  articulation  of  the  knee 
consists  of  two  butt-hinges,  giving  a  flexion  of  90°.  They 
are  contrived  in  two  flattened  shoulder-pieces  which  form  the 
Jower  extremities  of  the  standards.  The  form  of  the  stirrup 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  269 

is  that  of  a  deep  curve  (parabolic) ;  its  thickness  is  one-fifth 
of  an  inch,  and  itfe  greatest  width  one  and  a  half  inches. 

The  pivot  of  each  articulation  is  riveted  on  the  inner  face 
of  the  stirrup  ;  the  shoulder-pieces  are  bored,  and  free  at  the 
extremities  ;  the  faces  of  the  shoulders  meet  in  a  plane  which 
passes  through  the  axis  of  the  bearings,  making  an  angle  of 
60°  with  the  horizontal. 

The  stirrup  clears  the  cap  of  the  thigh-piece  by  three-fifths  of 
an  inch  at  the  centre.  At  its  base  is  affixed  perpendicularly,  on 
a  vertical  axis,  by  means  of  two  tenons  diametrically  opposed, 
a  hollow  steel  tube  in  which  the  shank  is  fixed.  The  tenons 
are  riveted  into  mortices  cut  in  the  thickness  of  the  stirrup, 
and  the  joint  is  then  brazed.  A  flat  forged  in  the  stirrup 
facilitates  the  adjustment  of  the  two  portions  without  reducing 
the  thickness  of  the  metal. 

The  knee  also  comprises  a  bilateral  locking-bolt,  an  arc  of 
steel  whose  extremities  are  fixed  by  screws  to  the  outer  sides 
of  the  two  standards  of  the  thigh-piece.  It  may  lie  in  front 
or  behind  the  latter  indifferently.  It  bears  a  spur  at  either 
extremity,  lying  in  the  plane  of  each  articulation  of  the  stirrup. 
It  lies  as  close  to  the  thigh-piece  as  possible. 

The  spur  must  be  so  contrived  as  to  engage  accurately  in 
the  angle  formed  by  the  shoulder-piece  of  the  standard.  The 
bolt  is  alike  at  both  ends  ;  its  section  is  oval,  except  at  the 
extremities,  which  are  flat,  and  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 
A  powerful  elastic  tractor  is  attached  to  the  bilateral  bolt  at 
the  summit  of  the  arc,  and  also  to  the  steel  tube  of  the  shank. 
It  serves  to  send  the  bolt  home  when  it  is  intended  to  lock 
the  articulation  of  the  knee.  But  to  allow  of  flexion  the  bolt 
is  raised  by  means  of  a  string  of  catgut,  one  end  of  which  is 
fixed  to  the  centre  of  the  arc,  while  the  other  runs  through 
an  eyelet  riveted  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  thigh-piece. 
It  is  attached  to  a  small  knob  or  handle,  which  is  pulled  to 
disengage  the  bolt. 

CXXV. — :The  shank  is  made  of  ash,  in  preference  to  any 
other  wood,  and  is  cylindro-conical ;  its  diameter  varies  from 
1-3  inches  to  1-7  inches.  The  tip  is  enlarged  to  2-8  inches, 


270         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

and  a  sole  of  leather  is  affixed  to  it  with  nails.  The  lower 
surface  of  the  "  shoe  "  is  convex,  with  a  radius  of  3-6  inches. 
Between  the  leather  and  the  wood  is  a  circular  piece  of  sheet 
rubber,  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

The  shank  is  fixed  to  the  thigh-piece  by  means  of  a  hollow 
tube  brazed  to  the  stirrup.  The  upper  end  of  the  shank  is 
shod  with  a  tube  of  steel  fixed  by  means  of  screws  ;  a  gentle 
pressure  should  suffice  to  make  it  enter  the  sleeve  of  the 
stirrup.  A  small  hole  is  drilled  through  the  shank,  and  a 
boss  is  brazed  to  the  external  sleeve,  boss  and  shank  being 
drilled  and  tapped.  The  shank  is  fixed  by  means  of  a  thumb- 
screw. For  country  work  the  shank  should  have  a  shoe 
4-8  inches  in  diameter,  fashioned  precisely  like  the  smaller 
shoe.  If  the  weather  is  damp  or  the  soil  moist  the  sole 
should  be  greased,  in  order  to  avoid  such  a  phenomenon  of 
suction  as  is  produced,  for  instance,  by  a  school-boy's  wash- 
leather  "sucker."  The  objection  to  wooden  shanks  is  their 
fragility  ;  they  expose  the  wearer  to  accidents  ;  a  hollow 
tube  of  duralumin  might  be  substituted,  the  wooden  shoe  being 
screwed  into  the  lower  end  of  it ;  or  shanks  of  hollow  wood 
may  be  employed,  of  a  larger  diameter. 

This  type  of  "  wooden  leg  "  should  never  exceed  a  total 
weight  of  5-4  Ibs. 

Returning  to  the  principles  of  scientific  prothesis,  we  find 
that  the  appliances  of  the  "  pestle  "  type  possess  a  small 
inertia,  afford  great  security  of  support,  and  cause  a  minimum 
of  fatigue  while  walking.  From  this  latter  point  of  view  it  is 
more  painful  to  throw  the  leg  out  sideways  in  walking,  as  is 
necessary  if  the  shank  is  too  long,  than  to  limp  slightly  with 
a  shank  of  insufficient  length. 

Let  us  add  that  certain  orthopaedists  occasionally  replace 
the  round  "  shoe  "  by  an  actual  "  wooden  foot,"  articulated 
in  the  fore-part.  This  is  physiologically  incorrect. 

Fig.  86  shows  a  bad  pattern  of  "  parade  "  leg,  with  a  leather 
legging.  It  is  fixed  by  means  of  an  interior  shank  to  the 
stirrup,  the  cylindrical  shank  having  first  been  removed.  The 
correct  form  of  "  parade  "  or  "  show  "  leg  (Fig.  85)  is  articu- 
lated at  the  ankle. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  271 

The  "  wooden  leg  "   of  the  type  described  can  easily  be 
affixed  to  any  thigh  stump  in  which  the  bony  lever  projects 


FIG.  86.— Li9g3  of  the  "  Pestle"  Type.— No.  1  Model  with  Locking- joint, and  defective 
"  Parade  "  Leg.     On  the  right  a  real  "  Wooden  Leg." 

more  than  two  inches  beyond  the  inguinal  crease  in  the  case 
of  very  high  amputations.     Where  the  lever  projects  less  than 


272 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


two  inches  beyond  the  inguinal  crease,  or  in  cases  of  disarticula- 
tion,  the  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  87  will  be  adopted. 

There  are  three  types 
of  the  "  wooden  leg  " 
with  the  bolt  or  knee- 
lock  ; «  LNos.  1,  2  and  3, 
the  two  latter  character- 
ised by  a  wide  moulded 
girdle,  while  No.  3  pos- 
sesses a  double-action 
bolt  B  and  a  guide-rail 
R,  with  a  thigh-piece  the 
back  of  which  consists  of 
flexible  leather. 

CXXVL— (b).  The  ''Ar- 
tificial Leg." — But  it  is 
the  "artificial  leg"  which 
is  principally  used  by  the 
majority  of  artisans, 
clerks,  members  of  the 
liberal  professions,  etc. ; 
in  a  word,  by  all  those 
who  have  to  consider 
appearances  and  the 
fashion.  The  artificial 
leg,  furnished  with  an 
articulated  foot,  restores 
locomotion  (as  far  as 
walking  goes)  to  a  degree 
which  is  almost  normal, 
and  entirely  normal  if 
the  leg  has  been  ampu- 
tated some  distance  below 

the  knee,  and  if  there  is   no   anchylosis  of  this   important 

articulation. 

We  must  briefly  recall  the  experimental  data  of  walking1 

1  For  further  details  see  Le  Moteur  Humain,  pp.  440-468. 


FIG.  87. — Wooden  Leg  with  Locking- joint 
No.  3,  for  cases  of  Disarticulaticn  of  the 
Hip-joint. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


273 


in  order  to  throw  a  light  on  the  entire  problem  of  the  prothesis 
of  the  legs. 

The  phases  of  the  step   are  explained  by  Fig.   88  ;    the 


274          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL,    ORGANISATION 

supporting  leg  forms  with  the  foot  an  angle  of  90°,  which  may 
be  increased  by  20°  or  25°,  but  rarely  diminishes.  The 
tibio-tarsal  articulation  of  an  artificial  leg  should  therefore 
allow  of  an  average  excursion  of  20°  beyond  the  right  angle, 
but  not  more  than  this.  It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  are 
facing  the  subject,  behind  the  articulation  of  the  knee,  and 
this  latter  is  two-fifths  of  an  inch  behind  the  coxo-femoral 
articulation  ;  the  thigh,  therefore,  has  an  oblique  antero- 
posterior  inclination,  and  the  line  of  gravity  of  the  body  passes 
through  a  point  in  advance  of  the  tibio-tarsal  articulation, 
preventing  the  bending  of  the  knees.  The  contraction  of  the 
quadriceps  produces  the  same  effect.  We  must  therefore 
give  the  hinge  of  the  knee-joint  sufficient  play  to  allow  of 
walking  on  the  level,  ascending  a  staircase,  or  sitting  down, 
but  must  endeavour  to  avoid  the  tendency  to  sudden  flexions, 
which  would  result  in  falls.  The  walk  must  not  be  a  series 
of  oscillations  of  the  artificial  limb  caused  by  the  periodic 
impulsions  of  the  stump.  We  know  also  that  the  thigh  and 
the  lower  leg  form  a  less  angle  than  180°,  and  that  during 
the  phase  of  impulsion  the  rear  lower  leg  leaves  the  ground 
flexed  at  an  angle  of  about  160°. 

Finally,  I  will  add  this  important  detail,  that  the  foot  should 
be  turned  15°  outwards,  and  that  its  inner  edge  should  be 
slightly  raised.  In  this  way  a  defective  gait  will  be  avoided, 
as  also  lateral  oscillations  of  the  body. 

Many  types  of  artificial  leg,  constructed  of  wood  and 
leather,  have  sought  to  reproduce  this  or  that  physiological 
element  of  the  gait.  None  of  these  are  perfectly  rational. 

The  American  models,  perfected  during  the  years  which 
followed  the  War  of  Secession  (1860-1865),  have  often  appeared 
to  possess  great  advantages.  In  reality  these  appliances 
are  copies  of  one  another,  and  remain  faithful  to  uniform  rules 
of  construction  which  are  far  from  satisfactory.  The  foot  is 
too  heavy,  and  its  excursion  badly  calculated  ;  the  knee,  too 
loose,  betrays  the  considerable  inertia  of  the  lower  leg  by 
means  of  jerks  ;  the  lower  leg  itself,  accordingly,  is  subject 
to  sudden  oscillations,  which  have  to  be  corrected  by  the 
impulses  of  the  other  leg ;  otherwise  the  necessary  extension 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  275 

of  the  limb  in  its  phase  of  vertical  support  will  not  be  obtained. 
Above  all,  the  articulations  are  not  in  their  right  places;  so 
that  the  wearer  runs  the  risk  of  an  occasional  accidental 
flexion  of  the  knee  ;  that  is,  of  a  fall. 

These  faults  are  in  themselves  sufficiently  serious  :  I  need 
not  therefore  insist  on  the  insufficient  attachment  of  the  organs 
by  means  of  simple  braces  ;  the  incorrect  formation  of  the 
thigh-pieces,  which  do  not  closely  embrace  the  supporting 
surfaces  of  the  stump  ;  the  resonance  of  wood,  which  makes 
a  sounding-box  of  the  appliance,  and  its  fragility. 

In  the  victims  of  amputation  who  have  worn  artificial  limbs 
of  the  American  type,  and  have  covered  a  mile  or  more  at 
their  own  pace,  I  have  noted  a  defective,  often  dangerous, 
and  always  fatiguing  gait.  Nevertheless,  there  are  some 
American  models  which  appear  to  me  to  be  highly  satisfactory. 

CXXVII.  Expert  Examination  of  an  Artificial  or 
44  Wooden  "  Leg.— The  method  of  observation  to  be  applied  to 
prothetic  appliances  of  the  lower  limb  is  two-fold.  On  the  one 
hand  I  register,  on  my  dynamographic  gangway,1  all  the  phases 
of  support  and  propulsion,  the  locomotive  efforts,  and  the 
duration  of  the  elements  of  activity  of  the  two  legs,  the  normal 
and  the  artificial  (Fig.  89).  On  the  other  hand,  I  measure,  by 
means  of  the  respiration  gauge  (p.  74),  the  expenditure  of 
energy  involved  by  walking  1  kilometre  with  the  model  under 
examination. 

We  may  state  simply  that  the  gangway  records,  for  each 
of  the  two  lower  limbs,  four  kinds  of  forces  :  the  supporting 
pressure,  the  backward  impulse,  and  the  lateral  thrusts, 
outward  and  inward,  as  shown  in  Fig.  90.  The  apparatus 
consists  of  levers  resting  on  springs  of  calculated  strength, 
which  are  in  contact  with  small  rubber  bulbs.  The  graphs 
obtained  (Fig.  91)  show  that  peasants  naturally  walk  with  a 
gait  rather  similar  to  that  of  the  artificial  limb  ;  they  throw 
the  feet  outwards  a  little,  and  the  backward  impulsion  is 
negligent.  Every  defect  in  locomotion  which  can  be  imputed 
to  the  model  under  examination  is  clearly  revealed  in  the  trac- 

1  C.B.  Acad.  Sc.,  31  July,  1916,  Vol.  CLXI1L,  p.  130. 


276          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


ings.  In  particular,  if  the  cripple  leans  much  less  heavily 
on  it  than  on  his  sound  leg,  the  appliance  is  badly  designed 
or  fitted,  or  there  is  some  cause  of  pain,  or  fatigue  merely. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


277 


Elevation        ^Stretcher  t 

B.  B.  Bulbs  S.S.  Springs 

Dynamographic     Gangway. 

FIG.  90. 


Secti 


FIG.  91. — Tracings  of  Footsteps  made  with  the  Dynamographic  Gangway. 


278          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

We  may  thus  pronounce,  without  fear  of  error,  on  the  compara- 
tive value  of  the  different  models,  and  on  the  progress  accom- 
plished in  their  manufacture. 

A  faithful,  precise,  and  impartial  analysis  is  obtained,  which 
will  prove  a  reliable  guide  to  the  technique  of  orthopaedics,, 
and  will  fertilise  the  mind  of  the  inventor. 

The  gangway  is  also  employed  in  order  to  watch  the  effects- 
of  the  functional  re-education  of  the  limbs  ;  it  corrects  the 
process,  and  accelerates  it. 

CXXVIII.  A  Model  Appliance  for  a  Case  of  Femoral 
Amputation. — I  will  here  describe  the  type  of  artificial 
leg  (Fig.  92,  to  the  left)  which  is  at  present  the  best.  Let  us 
begin  with  the  thigh-piece.  This  is  precisely  like  the  thigh- 
piece  of  the  type  already  described,  with  its  organs  of  attach- 
ment, girdle  and  hip-piece,  and  brace  with  double  buckles  ; 
its  organs  of  consolidation  are  two  lateral  standards  and  two- 
metallic  hoops.  The  knee  contains  two  hinged  articulations 
contrived,  in  a  line  with  the  transverse  axis,  in  the  standards 
of  the  thigh-piece  and  the  lower  leg.  They  are  countersunk, 
with  a  check  which  limits  their  play  to  an  angle  of  85°  of 
flexion.  The  external  cheek  forms  a  portion  of  the  metallic 
standard  of  the  lower  leg  ;  it  is  fixed  upon  the  other  by  means 
of  a  pivot  and  lock-nut. 

When  the  appliance  is  in  use  the  articular  centre  of  the 
knee  should  be  ~  of  an  inch  behind  the  line  of  the  coxo-femoral 
articulation.  The  standards  are  elbowed  to  give  this  result. 
The  thigh-piece  is  modified  in  the  lower  portion  ;  the  leather 
cap  is  pierced  by  a  slit  running  in  an  antero-posterior  direction, 
in  order  to  allow  an  elastic  tractor,  T,  to  pass  through  it. 
The  object  of  the  latter  is  to  oppose  a  greater  or  less  resistance 
to  the  flexion  of  the  knee.  It  is  therefore  made  adjustable 
at  will.  For  purposes  of  adjustment  a  catgut  string  is  attached 
to  the  interior,  in  front,  at  the  base  of  the  standards  of  the 
thigh-piece  ;  it  extends  at  least  1*  inches  beyond  the  total 
height  of  the  cap,  and  is  attached  to  a  spiral  spring  of 
steel,  of  appropriate  strength.  A  strap  of  tough,  flexible 
leather,  pierced  with  eyeletted  holes,  completes  the  attach- 


THE  RE-EDUCATION  OF  WAR-CRIPPLES 


279 


ments   of  the  tractor.      It  passes  through   a  little   window 
contrived  at  the  base  of  the  calf,  in  a  prolongation  of  the 


For  Cases  of  Amputation  of  Thigh. 

FIG.  92.— Artificial  Legs  in  Leather 


For  a  Case  of  Amputation  of  the 
lower  Leg  (short  stump). 


malleolar  circle,  and  makes  it  possible  to  regulate  the  tension 
by  hooking  this  or  that  eyelet  on  the  stud  on  the  forepart  of 
the  limb. 


280         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

The  elastic  equilibrium  of  the  knee  is  completed  by  a 
tractor  T,  which  acts  upon  the  posterior  face,  being  firmly 
riveted  to  two  attachments,  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  thigh 
and  the  upper  portion  of  the  calf. 

Finally,  to  prevent  the  leather  from  "  giving,"  the  slit  in 
the  cap,  and  the  upper  edge  of  the  calf,  are  bound  with  a  strip 
of  steel  which  keeps  the  material  strictly  in  shape.  It  is 
riveted  with  small  copper  rivets. 

The  lower  leg  or  "  gaiter  "  is  a  sheath  of  moulded  leather, 
approaching  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  shape  and  size  of 
the  sound  lower  leg.  Two  lateral  standards,  about  J-J  of 
an  inch  in  width,  riveted  to  the  leather,  ensure  rigidity. 
They  terminate  at  the  upper  extremities  in  the  articulations 
of  the  knee,  while  at  their  lower  extremities  they  are  drilled 
to  receive  the  axis  of  the  malleolar  articulation.  A  semi- 
circle of  steel,  placed  behind  and  a  little  below  the  knee, 
strengthens  the  standards  and  the  leather  sheath.  The  foot 
is  wholly  of  wood,  or  the  fore  part  F  may  be  of  felt,  glued  upon 
the  malleolar  portion.  In  either  case  there  will  be  a  "  wooden 
ankle,"  with  socket  articulation  ;  the  shank-piece  furnishes 
the  socket  or  mortise,  and  the  foot  the  tenon. 

A  steel  axis,  covered  with  leather,  traverses  the  whole 
joint  and  the  lower  extremities  of  the  standards  ;  it  is  inclined 
from  front  to  back  and  from  inside  to  outside,  in  order  to 
throw  the  foot  outwards,  so  that  it  makes  an  angle  of  15° 
with  the  antero-posterior  line. 

The  angle  which  the  lower  leg  makes  with  the  foot  is  one  of 
90°,  which  may  be  increased  to  110°  only.  These  limits  are 
assigned  by  the  uniform  and  elastic  action  of  a  "  double-action  ' ' 
spring,  made  of  steel  wire  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  felt  toe-piece  gives  lightness,  and  also  a  flexiMity  which 
may  dispense  with  an  anterior  articulation. 

Fig.  93  shows,  beside  the  type  which  has  been  described, 
the  average  weight  of  which  is  7J  Ibs.,  models  constructed  of 
wood,  either  of  French  or  American  make.  The  foot  possesses 
two  articulations  ;  the  cheeks  or  abutments  are  padded  with 
rubber.  The  appliance  worn  by  the  cripple  is  the  most 
interesting.  This  French  model  is  characterised  by  the 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  281 

ingenious  articulation  of  the  knee.  Here  we  see  a  check- 
piece,  C,  with  two  elbows,  formed  of  a  piece  of  steel  which 
is  pivoted  on  an  internal  axis  situated  at  the  base  of  the 


FIG.  93.— Models  of  artificial  Legs  in  Wood  (the  two  central  Models) 
and  Leather  (left  and  right). 

thigh-piece,  the  free  end  of  which  abuts  upon  the  posterior 
surface,  of  the  lower  leg  (Fig.  94).  It  rests  in  contact 
with  this  surface  owing  to  the  action  of  the  tractor  T.  This 


282          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


Knee 


mechanism  fulfils  a  double  function  ;  it  limits  the  forward 
play  of  the  thigh  upon  the  lower  leg  to  an  angle  of  180° ;  and 
it  automatically  rights  the  lower  leg  in  case  of  a  flexion  greater 
than  90°  ;  which  prevents  all  possibility  of  a  fall. 

When  the  flexion  exceeds  90°,  as 
when  the  wearer  sits  down,  for 
example,  the  tractor  ceases  to  act. 
This  result,  it  is  plain,  depends  on 
the  position  of  the  pivot  of  the  check- 
piece,  and  may  be  calculated  exactly. 
The  whole  appliance,  for  an  ampu- 
tation of  the  thigh, .  weighs  6|  Ibs., 
and  allows  of  a  very  comfortable 
gait. 

Nevertheless,  in  the  case  of  ampu- 
tations of  the  thigh  the  orthopaedists 
should  aim  at  the  construction  of 
artificial  legs  weighing  not  more 
than  2  kilogrammes  (4  Ib.  7  oz.). 
The  uses  of  multiple-ply  wood,  or 
duralumin  should  make  such  a  result 
possible  without  impairing  the  strength  of  the  appliance. 

CXXIX. — B.  AMPUTATIONS  OF  THE  LOWER  LEG. — Any 
stump  exceeding  2-8  inches  in  length  is  fitted  with  an  appliance 
of  the  tibial  leg  pattern  ;  the  particular  model  being  No.  1 
(Fig.  95),  No.  2,  or  No.  3,  according  to  the  length  of  the  stump, 
the  last  being  intended  for  cases  of  the  so-called  tibio-tarsal 
amputation,  in  which  only  the  foot  is  removed  (Fig.  96). 
In  all  these  cases  a  sufficient  "  scallop  "  or  "  window  "  must 
be  contrived  at  the  back  of  the  knee.  The  "  gaiter  "  or  leg- 
piece  is  of  moulded  leather,  which  must  be  extremely  rigid  ; 
it  is  lined  with  tough  chamois-leather.  The  upper  edge  is 
padded  in  front;  this  serves  to  support  the  weight  of  the 
body  ;  it  is  the  principal  support.  To  this  support  we  must 
add  the  pressure  uniformly  distributed  all  over  the  stump  ; 
it  moulds  itself,  accordingly,  on  the  sub-condylar  tables  of 
the  tibia. 


FIG.  94. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION"    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  283 


FIG.  95.— Tibial  Model  Xo.  1. 


c   £• 

"*l-2 

"I 


284          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

It  is  here  that  a  correct  moulding  should  be  the  aim  of  the 
maker.  The  anatomical  application  of  the  appliance  demands 
very  careful  attention.  The  support  will  be  chiefly  lateral, 
the  weight  bearing  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  lower  leg  ; 
if  it  were  on  the  inner  face  it  would  be  productive  of  pain. 

The  same  applies  to  Chopart's  amputation,1  which  enables 
the  subject  to  stand  upon  the  stump  ;  but  the  two  bearing 
surfaces  are  so  adapted  as  to  intervene  simultaneously. 

If  the  stump  of  the  lower  leg  is  less  than  2-8  inches  in  length 
it  will  be  flexed,  so  that  the  cripple  will  "  walk  on  his  knee  " 
(see  Fig.  92). 

CXXX. — C.  DOUBLE  AMPUTATIONS. — In  cases  of  amputation 
of  both  the  lower  limbs  the  appliances  will  be  designed  accord- 
ing to  the  foregoing  indications.  However,  subjects  who 
have  suffered  amputation  of  both  thighs  will  be  provided 
exclusively  with  legs  of  the  "  pestle  "  type,  with  locking  joints, 
well  and  strongly  constructed,  the  normal  length  of  the  shank 
being  reduced  by  2  to  4  inches,  according  to  the  case.  There 
must  be  no  sacrifices  for  the  sake  of  appearances  ;  such  would 
be  criminal.  Thigh-stumps  which  can  be  fitted  with  artificial 
legs  with  free  joints  are  extremely  rare. 

CXXXI.  Prothesis  of  the  Upper  Limb. — This  prothesis 
is  more  difficult  than  that  of  the  lower  limb.  For  a  long  time  it 
was  neglected  ;  not  long  ago  it  seemed  to  be  given  up  in  despair, 
and  the  experts  in  particular  laughed  at  the  idea  of  making 
a  one-armed  man  work.  The  early  attempts,  by  Laurent  (in 
the  fifteenth  century),  whose  name  is  recorded  by  Pare,  by 
Father  Sebastien  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  by  the 
€omte  de  Beaufort  in  the  nineteenth  century,  were  by  no 
means  encouraging.  Hugede,  in  1873,  had  no  better  success 
with  his  model  arm. 

We  therefore  applied  ourselves  to  the  subject,  and  after  a 
thorough  study  of  it  we  discovered  that  it  presented  no  insur- 
mountable difficulty  from  the  technical  and  mechanical  point 
of  view. 

1  An  amputation  which  leaves  only  the  heel  and  the  astragalus  or  ankle-bone. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


283 


By  means  of  an  experimental  arm  (Fig.  97),  with  a  spherical 
joint,  which  could  be  locked  at  will,  to  replace  the  wrist,, 
with  a  steel  rod  for  the  fore-arm,  and  a  means  of  attachment  to 
the  thorax,  all  the  portions  being  capable  of  modification  and 
adjustable  at  will,  we  were  able  to  devise  and  construct  a  true 
artificial  arm,  capable  of  performing  hard  manual  labour;  simple, 
strong,  and  practical.1 


FIG.  97. — Working   Arm    being    tested,  with    various  prehensile  Attachments 
for  holding  Tools. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  skilful  orthopaedist,  M.  Cauet,  under- 
took, under  our  direction,  investigations  which  enabled  us 
to  construct  a  mechanical  arm,  entirely  automatic  in  its  control, 
which  is  suitable  for  those  following  the  "  liberal  professions." 

These  two  models,  the  worker's  arm  and  the  mechanical 
arm,  may  be  adapted  to  all  amputations  of  the  upper  limb. 
They  offer  the  advantage  that  they  are  quickly  constructed, 

1  Journal  de  Physiologic,  p.  860,  1915. 


286          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

according  to  a  type  which  is,  so  to  speak,  standardised,  so 
that  these  models  can  be  repeated  with  slight  variations.1 

CXXXII. — A.  AMPUTATION  OF  THE  UPPER  ARM. — (a) 
Worker's  Arm  (Amar). — -The  model  known  as  Amar's  worker's 
arm  (bras  tie  travail  Amar)  is  adaptable  to  all  amputations 
leaving  a  stump  more  than  two  inches  in  length,  measuring 
from  the  line  of  the  armpit.  It  comprises  :  the  attachment ; 
the  brachial  sheath  ;  the  metallic  fore-arm  ;  universal  holder  ; 
universal  ring  ;  hook  ;  and  parade  or  "  show  "  hand. 

The  attachment  consists  of  a  scapular  portion  and  a  thoracic 
portion  (Fig.  98). 

The  scapular  portion  consists  of  a  plaque  of  leather,  moulded 
to  shape,  and  lined  with  fine  tough  lambskin  or  chamois  leather. 
It  should  descend  as  far  as  the  horizontal  line  drawn  through 
the  armpit,  and  should  cover  the  shoulder  for  a  width  of 
3-6  to  4  inches,  coming  into  contact  with  the  acromial  arch 
without  overlapping  it.  The  thoracic  portion  is  intended  to 
hold  the  former  firmly  in  position.  It  is  a  girdle  of  leather, 
of  flexible  calf-skin,  or  of  inelastic  fabric,  1-6  inches  in  width  ; 
it  is  fixed  at  its  two  extremities,  by  means  of  tubular  rivets, 
to  the  shoulder-piece.  It  encircles  the  thorax,  passing 
under  the  opposite  armpit,  where  it  is  covered  with  a  moveable 
sleeve  of  lambskin  or  chamois,  padded,  and  eight  inches  in 
length.  In  its  dorsal  portion  the  girdle  contains  a  segment  of 
strong  elastic  webbing,  2-4  inches  in  length.  In  front  it  is 
fastened  by  means  of  a  nickel-plated  buckle  (preferably  without 
a  tongue). 

The  brachial  sheath  is  of  moulded  leather,  as  rigid  as  possible, 
and  lined  with  soft  leather  ;  it  is  split  down  the  front,  the 
edges  revealing  a  wide  strip  or  tongue  of  thin  flexible  calfskin. 
The  closing  is  assured  by  sewn  and  riveted  straps  and  small 
buckles.  It  possesses  a  metallic  reinforcement  consisting  of  a 
dome  of  steel  ^  inches  in  thickness,  which  is  prolonged  by 
two  standards,  situated  on  the  outer  and  the  inner  side 
respectively,  the  whole  being  forged  in  one  piece.  The 
standards  are  riveted  firmly  to  the  leather  (with  copper  rivets). 

>  Jules  Amar,  C.R.   Acad.  Sc.,    13  March,  1916,  Vol.  CLXIL,  p.  401. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


287 


The  dome  possesses  a  central  core  of  steel,  which  is  brazed 
on  ;  it  is  bored  for  a- tap  of  international  pitch  (10  mm.  and  1-5 
mm.),. 


Sh  oulder  -pie 


FIG.  98. — Amar's  Worker's  Arm  with  Parade  Hand  and  universal  Grip  or  Pliers. 

The  outer  rim  of  the  sheath  is  convex  (the  radius  of  the 
curve  being  of  some  length)  and  projects  upwards  ;  the  inner 
rim  is  slightly  hollowed  at  the  armpit. 


288          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

The  articulation  of  the  sheath  at  the  shoulder  consists  of 
three  straps  or  lugs,  fastened  by  tubular  rivets  ;  an  acromial 
strap  of  flexible  leather,  which  supports  the  whole  apparatus  ; 
a  dorsal  strap,  longer,  and  of  strong  elastic  webbing,  giving 
an  elongation  of  1-6  inches  ;  and  an  anterior  strap  of  flexible 
leather,  or  even  of  elastic  webbing. 

The  total  length  of  the  brachial  appliance  will  be  less  than 
that  of  the  sound  arm,  to  permit  of  the  attachment  of  a  piece 
of  steel  jointed  to  the  fore-arm  ;  unless  a  disarticulation  of  the 
elbow  is  in  question. 

CXXXIII. — The  metallic  fore-arm  consists  of  a  rod  of  steel 
weighing  about  6|  ounces  ;  its  form  guarantees  great  strength 
with  a  small  mass. 

It  is  provided  with  a  socket  joint  cut  in  a  cylindrical  piece 
of  steel  which  screws  into  the  tapped  hole  in  the  dome.  This 
joint  is  controlled  by  a  small  lever  on  the  outer  side  of  the  arm. 
A  lock-nut  makes  it  possible  to  place  the  stem  in  any  plane, 
while  the  joint  of  the  elbow  allows  of  angles  of  flexion  varying 
from  180°  to  45°.  The  free  extremity  of  the  fore-arm  is  bored 
and  tapped  with  a  thread  of  the  pitch  already  mentioned,  in 
order  that  it  may  receive  the  following  appliances ;  the  universal 
holder,  the  universal  ring,  the  hook,  and  the  parade  hand. 

The  holder  is  of  bronze  or  forged  steel  ;  it  is  shaped  like  a 
lobster's  claw.  Its  characteristics  are :  a  ball-and-socket 
joint,  enabling  it  to  be  turned  in  all  directions,  and  fixed  in 
any  given  position  by  means  of  a  small  locking-screw  and  lever  ; 
and  an  eccentric,  to  ensure  the  firm  closing  of  the  jaws,  which 
open  by  means  of  an  automatic  control,  actuated  by  a  small  lever 
which  is  afterwards  pressed  downwards-  (see  Fig.  98).  The 
tips  of  the  jaws  make  it  possible  to  seize  a  tool  or  any  other 
object ;  tools  fitted  with  a  handle  are  thrust  into  a  special 
funnel-shaped  holder,  where  they  remain  firmly  fixed. 

The  universal  holder  suffices  the  worker  for  the  great  majority 
of  purposes  ;  but  the  universal  ring  may  also  be  used  (see  A, 
Fig.  99).  This  comprises  a  steel  head,  part  of  which  forms  a 
screw  (international  pitch) ;  it  is  drilled  in  two  directions,  the 
axis  of  the  holes  being  at  right  angles,  so  that  one  hole  opens 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


289 


into  the  other.  In  one  of  these  holes  is  placed  the  shank  of  the 
ring,  which  is  fixed  by  means  of  a  locking-screw  with  lever 
handle  working  in  the  other  hole.  Th\s  shank  is  shaped  with 
a  grooved  neck,  so  that  it  may  be  turned  freely  without  falling 
out.  The  hook,  B,  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  figure  ; 
it  is  fitted  into  the  same  head  as  the  ring.  Grip,  ring,  and 
hook  are  nickel-plated. 

Finally,  the  "  parade  hand  "  is  made  of  wood  (lime) ;  it  is 
well  shaped,  resembling  the  sound  hand  as  closely  as  possible  ; 
the  fingers  are  half-flexed  and 
rigid  ;  they  are  split  along  their 
length  from  front  to  back,  and 
a  thin  slip  of  wood  with  the 
fibres  running  longitudinally  is 
inserted,  in  order  to  increase 
their  strength.  The  thumb  is 
jointed,  and  opposed  to  the 
index  and  middle  fingers.  The 
tips  of  the  thumb  and  the 
first  two  fingers  are  counter- 
sunk and  provided  with  rubber 
pads.  In  the  centre  of  the 
wrist  is  fixed  a  threaded  shank, 
the  pitch  of  the  thread  being 
as  before  mentioned,  so  that  it 
may  be  affixed  to  the  fore-arm, 
band,  which  is  screwed  on,  the  lower  portion  of  a  rigid  leather 
sheath  is  attached  to  the  wrist.  This  envelopes  the  fore-arm  as 
far  as  the  elbow,  where  the  edge  is  hollowed  out  to  permit  of 
access  to  the  locking-nut.  A  small  opening  at  the  base  of 
the  sheath  gives  access  to  the  locking-screw  at  the  extremity 
of  the  fore-arm. 

All  the  threaded  portions  should  be  made  with  an  easy 
entry,  corresponding  to  three  threads,  in  order  to  obviate 
fumbling  and  economise  the  wearer's  time. 

CXXXIV. — (b)  Amputations  very  near  the  Shoulder,  and 
Disarticulation  of  the  Slioulder. — If  the  stump  to  be  fitted  is 


Wash 


Universal     Ring. 
FIG.  99. 

By  means  of  a  nickel-plated 


290 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


less  than  two  inches  in  length,  measuring  from  the  line  of  the 
armpit,  or  if  the  upper  arm  has  been  disarticulated,  the  proce- 
dure will  be  as  follows  : 

In  the  first  case,  the  model  should  be  the  parade  arm,  No.  1. 
With  this  it  is  still  possible  to  utilise,  though  only  to  a  very 
slight  extent,  the  small  moveable  stump  of  the  arm,  and  the 
muscular  power  of  the  shoulder. 


FIG.  100. — Waistcoats  for  Amputations,  leaving  a  short  Stum])  or  none. 

This  type  of  arm  is  characterised  by  its  organ  of  attachment, 
which  consists  of  a  waistcoat  of  strong  perforated  fabric,  with 
celluloid  eyelet-holes,  perfectly  fitting  the  thoracic  cage.  It  is 
laced  back  and  front.  On  one  side  is  a  shoulder-piece  of  flexible 
leather,  to  support  the  appliance ;  a  counter-support  of  padded 
leather  passes  under  the  opposite  armpit.  The  waistcoat  will  not 
be  cut  too  low,  or  it  will  allow  too  much  play  (Fig.  100,  A). 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  291 

The  waistcoat  may,  according  to  circumstances,  assume 
different  forms.  Half  may  be  made  of  leather  moulded  to 
the  thorax  and  the  shoulder  involved  ;  it  should  be  lined  with 
lambskin  or  chamois.  Numerous  ventilation  holes  are  pierced 
through  the  leather  ;  and  a  metallic  reinforcement,  formed  of 
a  strip  of  steel  two-thirds  of  an  inch  in  width,  should  be  affixed 
to  the  edge,  on  the  outside.  The  other  half  of  the  waistcoat 
may  be  of  very  strong  ticking,  with  padding  under  the  armpit 
<B). 

A  last  type  of  arrangement  may  be  left  to  the  choice  of  the 
patient.  It  consists  in  joining  the  semi-corset  of  perforated 
leather  to  a  wide  counter-support  of  padded  leather  placed 
under  the  opposite  armpit.  The  two  portions  are  connected 
by  straps  arranged  as  in  C,  riveted  at  their  extremities,  and 
containing  an  elastic  insertion  (e,  e).  This  arrangement  is,  in 
my  opinion,  the  best. 

The  brachial  sheath  is  entirely  closed  ;  it  reaches  the  crest 
of  the  acromion  on  the  one  side,  and  the  armpit  on  the  other, 
and  is  held  in  this  position  by  the  three  links  already  described 
as  supporting  the  worker's  arm.  But  these  will  be  short, 
in  order  that  they  may  not  allow  the  appliance  too  much  play. 
Lastly,  the  shank  of  the  fore-arm  will  be  of  reduced  dimensions, 
except  as  regards  its  length.  The  attachment  will  be  modified 
if  the  shoulder  is  anchylosed  ;  it  will  form  part  of  the  brachial 
sheath,  but  will  be  perfectly  moulded,  covering  the  middle 
part  of  the  clavicle  and  the  spine  of  the  scapula,  and  will  be 
cut  away  at  the  armpit. 

In  the  second  case,  when  the  shoulder  is  disarticulated,  the 
type  of  arm  fitted  will  be  parade  arm  No.  2,  whose  character- 
istic feature  is  that  the  waistcoat  is  replaced  by  a  semi-corselet 
of  moulded  leather,  reinforced  by  strips  of  steel,  as  in  B  (Fig. 
100).  The  remainder  of  the  corselet  is  made  according  to 
the  pattern  of  the  semi-corselet  of  ticking  or  the  strapped 
waistcoat.  The  leather  is  moulded  into  a  cap  simulating  the 
shoulder  ;  and  this  cap  must  be  very  strong,  being  reinforced 
with  steel  bands  if  need  be,  in  order  to  protect  the  stump. 
The  arm  is  attached  by  means  of  a  detachable  hinge,  which  is 
closed  by  a  reversible  clutch,  or  by  a  key.  A  large  indentation, 


292 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


edged  with  a  ribbon  of  steel  riveted  to  the  leather,  enables 
the  arm  to  be  affixed  to  the  shoulder-cap.  The  external 
standard  of  the  brachial  sheath  is  therefore  prolonged 
to  join  the  acromial  band  of  steel,  being  articulated  in  a 


For  disarticulation 
of  the  Wrist. 


Universal  Pliers. 


FIG.   101. — Worker's  Type  of  Fore-arm  (Amar). 

line  with  the  transverse  axis  of  the  shoulder-cap.     A  screw 
and    nut  limit  the  oscillations  of  the  arm  to  45°  in  front 
of  the  body  and  20°  to  the  rear ;   which   is   sufficient   for 
appearances. 
As  for  the  hinge,  it  is  situated  at  the  peak  of  the  acromion, 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  293 

and  its  full  excursion  raises  the  arm  to  an  angle  of  90° ;  it 
should  be  given  a  width  of  -8  inches  to  1  inch.  The  wearer 
can  then  withdraw  the  arm  at  will,  while  his  shoulder  is  pro- 
tected against  the  possibility  of  shock. 

CXXXV.— B.  AMPUTATION  OF  THE  FORE-ARM.— There  are 
two  cases  to  be  considered,  according  to  the  length  of  the 
stump. 

(a)  Cases  where  the  Stump  measures  more  than  2-6  inches 
from  the  internal  Crease  of  the  Elbow. — The  model  will  include 
the  worker's  type  of  forearm,  in  which  the  brachial  sheath  is 
largely  cut  away  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  elbow  (Fig.  101) ; 
its  standards  will  accurately  follow  the  slight  bi-concavity  of 
the  upper  arm.  At  the  extremities  of  these  standards,  and 
those  of  the  sheath  of  the  fore-arm,  two  thongs  of  flexible 
leather,  T,  shaped  like  a  figure  8,  are  fixed  by  means  of  steel 
screw-bolts  and  nuts.  These  thongs  are  made  long  and  narrow, 
so  as  to  permit  of  the  full  degree  of  pronation  and  supination 
of  which  the  stump  is  capable.  An  elbow-guard  of  dogskin 
or  other  tough  material  covers  the  elbow,  and  is  sewn  to  the 
posterior  and  opposing  edges  of  the  two  sheaths,  leaving 
play  for  a  flexion  of  50°.  The  sheath  of  the  fore-arm  is  made 
a  tight  fit,  and  is  closed  for  short  stumps  ;  for  longer 
stumps  it  is  laced  or  buckled  on  the  anterior  face. 

Cut  away  at  the  elbow,  it  should  allow  of  the  full  degree  of 
flexion  possible  to  the  stump. 

It  terminates  in  a  dome  and  a  shank  of  steel,  provided  the 
length  of  the  latter  is  not  less  than  3-2  inches,  in  which  case 
the  sheath  will  be  continued  to  the  wrist.  In  a  case  of  dis- 
articulalion  of  the  wrist  the  central  core  C  of  the  dome  will 
be  brazed  to  the  outside  instead  of  to  the  inside  of  the  latter. 
This  must  be  taken  into  account  in  making  the  parade  hand  H, 
which  must  be  hollowed  at  the  wrist  in  order  to  receive  the 
screw  attached  to  the  dome. 

The  principle  of  all  these  arrangements  is  to  keep  the  dome 
in  contact  with  the  stump,  in  order  that  the  sensibility  of  the 
latter  may  be  utilised  to  obtain  an  increased  dexterity  of 
movement. 


294 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


CXXXVI. — (b)  Cases  where  the  Slump  of  the  Fore-arm  is 
from  1-6  to  2-4  inches  in  length. — Short  stumps  of  the  fore-arm 
are  usually  a  great  obstacle  to  prothesis.  The  following 
arrangement,  known  as  the  lever  ^ore-arm,  solves  the  difficulty. 
The  standards  of  the  brachial  sheath  are  strengthened  at  the 


FIG.   102. — Lever  Fore-arm  (Amar). 

lower  ends,  and  form  a  hinge  with  the  two  arms  of  the  stirrup 
(Fig.  102,  S).  The  axis  of  the  double  hinge  is  strictly  in  line 
with  the  transverse  axis  of  the  elbow-joint,  which  is  inclined 
from  without  inwards,  and  from  above  downwards,  at  an  angle 
of  about  10°.  It  is  essential  to  allow  for  this  inclination.  An 
iron  ring  R  (made  of  J  inch  rod  iron)  surrounds  the  stump  at 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  295 

a  distance  of  1-2  inches  from  the  crease  of  the  elbow.  It  is 
made  to  rotate  upon  one  of  its  diameters.  The  posterior  arc 
of  the  ring  is  covered  with  dogskin,  which  is  sewn  to  the  ring 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  brachial  sheath  on  the  other.  This 
must  be  of  such  dimensions  as  to  allow  the  stump  to  describe 
its  greatest  degree  of  flexion.  A  strong  elastic  tractor  attached 
to  the  anterior  portion  of  the  ring  is  affixed  to  the  brachial 
sheath  by  means  of  a  forked  strap.  This  brings  the  ring 
back  to  its  first  position,  and  prevents  the  stump  from  escaping. 

On  the  axis  of  the  elbow-joint  is  mounted  the  stirrup,  the 
arc  of  which  affords  a  maximum  of  strength  ;  the  stump 
controls  it  by  means  of  the  ring,  communicating  to  it  all  the 
flexion  and  extension  possible.  It  is  forged  in  one  piece,  of 
wrought  steel,  being  at  least  half  an  inch  wide  and  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch  thick.  The  articulations  permit  of  a  flexion 
of  75°,  being  countersunk  hinges  mounted  with  bolts  and  nuts. 

In  the  centre  of  the  arc  of  the  stirrup  is  a  brazed  attachment, 
bored  and  tapped  with  a  thread  of  international  pitch,  to 
receive  the  shank  of  the  fore-arm  S,  which  is  only  4  inches  in 
length,  and  in  thickness  is  equal  to  that  of  the  parade  arm. 

All  the  models  which  have  been  described  are  perfectly 
practical  and  of  proved  strength.  They  are  so  well  adapted 
to  professional  needs  that  during  two  years'  experience  of  their 
use  no  modification  has  appeared  desirable. 

CXXXVII.  Various  Appliances. — Before  examining  the 
Cauet  type  of  mechanical  arm,  which  is  intended  more  parti- 
cularly for  the  "  liberal  "  professions,  we  must  mention  certain 
appliances  which  seem  to  offer  certain  advantages  to  the  work- 
ing-man. 

In  France  inventors  have  been  inspired  by  the  type  fitted 
with  the  universal  holder  or  pliers,  A  model  has  been  recom- 
mended which  is  equipped  with  a  universal  joint,  which  is 
certainly  extremely  mobile,  but  is  unsuitable  for  the  exertion 
of  any  great  effort.  It  does  not  present  any  real  improvement 
over  the  simple  universal  ring,  the  grooved  throat  of  which 
gives  just  the  mobility  desired  in  appliances  required  for 
purposes  of  manual  labour,  and  also  for  the  exertion  of  force. 


296          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

The  pliers  with  universal  joint  is  a  specialised  organ  ;  now  it  is 
by  no  means  the  object  of  prothesis  to  produce  such,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  to  reduce  the  number  of  special  working  appliances 
to  a  minimum. 

Many  other  inventors  have  fallen  into  this  error,  who, 
after  considering  this  or  that  professional  operation,  have  set 
themselves  to  devise — and  not  without  success — a  series  of 
adequate  instrument.  The  same  cripple  would  be  obliged, 
under  these  conditions,  to  mount  upon  his  artificial  limb  now 
a  file-holder,  now  a  chisel-holder,  etc.  ;  involving  a  waste  of 
time,  and  implying  a  faulty  adaptation  of  the  stump  ;  incon- 
veniences which  it  is  important  to  avoid  in  the  case  of  wounded 
men  seeking  employment. 

It  is  moreover  recognised  that  although  the  execution  of 
certain  movements  is  correct  when  one  of  the  specialised 
attachments  is  employed,  others  are  distorted,  owing  to  a 
lack  of  synergy  arising  from  this  very  specialisation. 

Nor  must  we  seek  to  transform  the  artificial  arm  into  an 
agent  of  support,  thereby  complicating  its  function.  The 
example  of  the  magnetic  hand  is,  in  this  connection,  one  of  the 
most  enlightening.  The  magnetic  hand1  consists  of  an  actual 
electro-magnet,  the  form  of  which  varies  according  lo  the  tool 
to  be  held  (pincers,  pliers,  chisel,  file).  In  the  case  of  the  file 
the  electro-magnet  assumes  the  aspect  of  a  pot,  attached  by 
a  sleeve  to  the  fore-arm,  a  ball-and-socket  joint  being  inter- 
posed (Fig.  103).  The  coils. receive  the  current  from  a  portable 
electric  battery,  or  the  factory  circuit  ;  contact  is  made  or 
broken  by  the  other  hand  or  the  foot. 

It  may  readily  be  imagined  that  such  an  arrangement  is 
cumbersome,  despite  its  appearance  of  flexibility  ;  we  must 
also  take  into  account  the  magnetic  inertia  of  the  appliance, 
the  fumbling  to  get  the  magnet  in  the  right  position,  the  neces- 
sity of  providing  every  tool  with  an  iron  armature,  and  the 
difficulty  experienced  by  the  wearer  in  co-ordinating  his 
movements  with  the  making  and  breaking  of  the  current. 
We  may  also  mention  that  the  cost  of  the  current  consumed 
must  be  a  considerable  expense  to  the  manufacturer. 

1  The  Electrical  Review,  14  January,  1916. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


297 


In  Germany,  it  would  seem,  the  tendency  is  toward  a  simple 
and  universal  prothesis,  similar  to  that  whose  principles  I  have 
been  defending.  The  objects  pursued  have  been  convenience 
of  work  and  its  low  cost.  Such,  in  my  opinion,  is  the  true 
doctrine. 

CXXXVIII.  Mechanical  Arms. — Mechanical  arms  are  in- 
tended to  realise  automatic  movement  ;  and  in  particular  to 


Ball-and-socket 
joint.  . 


Magnetic      Hand 


FIG.  103.— Magnetic  Hand. 

alTord  mobility  of  the  fingers.  These  are  therefore  articulated. 
We  have  an  example  of  such  articulation  in  the  jointed  thumb 
of  the  parade  hand,  which  is  sometimes  controlled  by  a  cord 
actuated  by  the  shoulder  of  the  opposite  side.  The  best 
models  of  mechanical  arms  are  those  of  the  Cauet  type.  I 
have  for  a  long  time  been  seeking  to  improve  this  type  of  arm. 
To-day  it  is  certainly  the  best. 

The  essential  organ  of  these  appliances  is  the  hand,  which 
is  articulated,  and  is  made  of  metal,  with  the  exception  of  the 
tips  of  the  fingers,  which  are  covered  with  cork,  rubber,  or 
felt,  in  order  to  lessen  shocks  and  improve  their  holding  power. 


298 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


The  play  of  the  articulations  is  assured  by  the  movement 
of  a  breast-band  which  encircles  the  thorax,  or  of  braces  applied 
to  the  shoulders  ;  these  movements  are  transmitted  to  the 
hand  or  fore-arm  by  steel  cables  (Bowden  wires). 


Articulated  Hand 

Sb  &  e  I  she  II.  Fingers 

Faced  with  cork 


Shell 
Cam-plate 
Springs 
Wire  cable 
Tendons 


In  extension 


FIG.   104. — Articulated  Hand  (Cauet  Type,  Amar's  Model). 

Let  us  now  consider  a  few  details  of  these  arms  : 

(a)  The  Articulated  Hand. — It  consists  of  two  shells  of  metal 

enclosing  a  cavity  having  the  shape  of  the  hand  ;    in  the 

interior  is  a  plate  on  which  the  fingers  are  mounted  by  means 

of  hinges  working  on  a  common  pivot.     The}''  are  kept  in  a 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


299 


dosed  position  by  springs  attached  to  their  bases.  The  fingers 
are  controlled  by  levers  or  tendons  of  steel,  T,  which  pass 
through  a  cam-plate  C.  To  this  cam-plate  the  steel  cable  is 


Articulated  hand 
(steel  Faced  cork) 


FIG.  105. — Mechanical  Arm  for  an  Amputation  of  the  Fore-arm. 

attached  ;   it  works  in  a  sheath,  and  is  attached  to  the  breast- 
band  (Fig.  105). 

(b)  This  latter  is  of  leather,  lightly  made,  and  containing 
an  elastic  portion,  consisting  of  springs  which  keep  it  lying 


300          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

snugly  on  the  chest.     To  the  two  ends  of  the  breast-band  are 
fixed  the  cable  and  the  sheath  respectively.     Whenever  the 


Metallic    Braces    (covered  leather) 


Shoulder  piece 
(feather) 


Breast-band  (feather  strap  &  buckle] 


Metallic  carcase 
(covered  leather) 


Articulated  hand 
(steel  Feced  cork) 


FIG.  106. — Mechanical  Arm  for  Amputations  of  the  upper  Arm. 

chest  increases  its  girth  by  an  effort  of  inspiration,  or  by  the 
action  of  the  muscles  expanding  the  ribs,  the  cable  actuates 
the  cam-plate,  and  the  fingers  gradually  open.  There  are  no 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


301 


sudden  movements.     Or  the  fingers  may  in  the  first  place  be 

in  extension,  so  that  the  cam-plate  acts  with  contrary  effect. 

(c)  Various  modifications  of  the  greatest  simplicity  make  it 


Braces 


Metallic  carcase 
(covered  with  Flexible  leather) 


Articulated  hand 
'nner  Face  cork.) 


FIG.  107. — Mechanical  Arm  for  Cases  of  Disarticulation  of  the  Shoulder. 


possible  to  adapt  the  articulated  hand  not  only  to  subjects 
who  have  suffered  amputation  of  the  fore-arm,  but  also  to 
those  whose  upper  arm  has  been  amputated,  or  even  dis- 
articulated. In  these  two  latter  cases  a  control  for  the  elbow 


302         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

is  added  :  this  control  is  actuated  by  the  shoulders  (by  means 
of  steel  braces)  and  transmitted  to  the  fore-arm  by  a  second 
steel  cable.  The  organs  which  replace  a  portion  of  the  fore-arm, 
or  the  upper  arm,  or  the  whole  limb,  are  made  of  sheet  steel, 
covered  with  leather,  or  of  leather  only  ;  they  correspond  to 
the  indications  of  anatomy  and  physiology  without  prejudice 


FIG.   108. — Crippled  Typist  using  mechanical  Arm. 

to  their  mechanical  qualities,  which  remain  the  most  important. 
For  the  rest,  the  mechanical  arm  may  be  combined  with  the 
worker's  arm,  in  the  sense  that  the  articulated  hand  may  be 
mounted  on  the  latter  arm  ;  we  shall  then  obtain  automatism 
of  movement,  and  also  the  great  strength  of  the  worker's  arm 
(see  Figs.  105  to  107  and  further  on). 

CXXXIX.  Employment  and  Qualities. — These  mechani- 
cal arms  may  be  employed  by  all  persons  who  follow  a  business 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


303 


or  sedentary  profession,  without  fatigue  and  without  effort 
on  their  part.  They  fulfil  one  most  important  requirement ; 
they  make  it  possible  for  those  who  have  suffered  disarticula- 
tion  of  the  arm,  or  the  amputation  of  both  arms,  to  lake  hold 
of  objects,  and  to  perform  the  little  actions  of  everyday  life. 
For  the  artificial  hand,  with  its  shell,  its  cam-plate,  its  tendons, 
and  its  articulated  fingers,  capable  of  the  most  gradual  move- 
ment, weighs  in  all  only  some  eleven  ounces  ;  connected, 
by  steel  attachments,  to  a  fore-arm,  it  weighs  in  all  about  one 


Fig.  109. — Crippled  Violinist  furnished  with  a  mechanical  Arm. 

and  a  half  pounds  ;  while  the  whole  arm  never  exceeds  two 
pounds  seven  ounces.  Yet  it  enables  the  wearer  to  lift  a 
weight  of  fifteen  to  eighteen  pounds  between  his  flexed  fingers 
and  the  opposing  thumb  ;  to  pick  up  with  the  finger-tips  a 
pen,  a  pin,  or  a  match  ;  to  button  his  clothes  ;  to  take  out 
his  handkerchief  ;  to  write  ;  to  turn  over  the  leaves  of  a 
book.  The  hand  opens  by  about  3f  inches  when  the  fingers 
are  completely  extended,  by  the  effort  of  an  inspiration  or  an 
expansion  of  the  ribs  which  is  not  in  any  way  painful  or 


304 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


laborious.  I  have  even  found  that  the  exercise  of  this  move- 
ment develops  the  chest.  However,  in  the  case  of  those 
whose  upper  arm  has  been  amputated  the  hand  must  be 
controlled  by  the  opposite  shoulder. 

The  training  required  by  the  user  of  the  mechanical  arm  is 
very  brief ;  in  forty-eight  hours  the  wearer  is  able  to  employ 
it  to  perfection.  And  he  may,  by  following  the  rules  already 


FIG.  110. — Officer  provided  with  a  mechanical  Arm  (Amputation  of  the 
upper  Arm). 

given  in  respect  of  the  sensory  education  of  the  stumps,  train 
himself  to  graduate  the  efforts  exerted  by  the  metallic  fingers, 
to  acquire  an  indirect  sense  of  touch.  In  this  way  we  have 
known  the  wearers  of  such  arms  to  operate,  with  sufficient 
dexterity,  the  keys  of  a  typewriter  or  calculating  machine 
(Fig.  108)  or  the  keys  of  a  piano,  and  even  the  bow  of  a  violin 
(Fig.  109). 

Many  officers  who  have  suffered  amputation  of  the  upper 
arm  very  near  the  shoulder  have  been  fitted  with  mechanical 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


305 


arms  which  have  enabled  them  to  mount  a  horse,  to  hold  the 
reins  firmly,  to  hold  the  scabbard  of  the  sword,  and,  more 
often  than  not,  to  return  to  the  army  at  the  front  (Figs.  110 
and  111). 

If  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  detail  of  construction  seems 
of  a  nature  to  favour  the  movements  or  the  exertions  of  the 


FIG.  111. — The  same  Officer  on  Horseback. 

cripple,  it  is  in  no  case  difficult  to  work  it  out  and  apply  it. 
The  mechanical  arm,  like  the  worker's  arm,  is  adapted  strictly 
and  wholly  to  the  professions  for  the  exercise  of  which  it  has 
been  designed.  Theory  and  practice  agree  on  this  point : 
it  is  impossible  that  it  should  not  be  recognised. 

CXL.  Other  Models  of  Articulated  Arms. — The  prothetic 
laboratory  has  nevertheless  tested  and  investigated  other 
types  of  the  artificial  arm.  In  the  short  space  which  I  have 


306          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

reserved  for  prothesis  in  this  popular  work  on  the  subject 
I  should  find  it  difficult  to  describe  them  all  ;  for  which  reason 
I  have  called  the  reader's  attention  to  those  whose  merit 
has  to  me  appeared  incontestable  ;  whether  from  the  tests 
made  in  the  laboratory  or  from  practical  demonstrations 
before  competent  observers. 

However,  I  will  mention  an  American  model,  the  carcase 
of  which  is  of  wood,  and  in  which  the  mechanism  is  intended 
more  particularly  to  exert  efforts  of  traction.  The  appliance 
is  heavy  ;  it  is  possible  to  lift  objects  only  when  the  hand  is  in 
a  horizontal  plane  ;  it  does  not  grip  with  sufficient  force,  and 
its  price  is  high. 

Other  models  are  of  use  only  to  those  who  have  suffered 
amputation  of  the  fore-arm,  as  they  are  controlled  by  the 
flexion  of  the  elbow.  With  these  it  is  impossible  to  take  hold 
of  anything  if  the  arm  is  extended  ;  or  if  the  lever  placed  in  the 
elbow  acts  upon  extending  the  arm  the  contrary  case  obtains. 

It  must  also  be  said  that  the  majority  of  these  types  are 
made  of  wood,  and  are  therefore  fragile.  To  obtain  the 
automatic  action  of  the  fingers  is  not  everything  if  the  force 
necessary  for  the  performance  of  the  actions  in  which  the 
intervention  of  the  fingers  is  indispensable  is  not  available. 

I  have  purposely  refrained  from  discussing  appliances  in 
which  this  essential  point  has  been  overlooked  ;  as  those, 
for  example,  in  which  the  hand  is  opened  by  the  rotation  of  a 
wooden  disc  which  forms  a  second  palm,  a  rotation  effected 
by  the  pneumatic  distension  of  a  small  rubber  bulb.  Here 
we  have  a  total  absence  of  natural  appearance,  of  graduated 
control,  of  strength,  and,  I  should  be  inclined  to  say,  of  any 
possibility  of  utilisation. 

CXLI.  Functional  Prothesis. — The  name  of  functional 
prothesis  has  been  applied  to  the  technical  method  which 
assists  or  replaces  the  performances  of  a  muscular  function 
in  any  case  of  infirmity.  The  term  physiological  orthopaedy 
would  be  more  correct. 

In  this  species  of  prothesis  two  different  purposes  are 
possible  :  either  we  have  to  protect  the  seat  of  the  wound,  and 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


307 


support  a  limb  which  is  definitely  powerless,  or  the  neuro- 
muscular  condition  is  capable  of  improvement  by  the  restoration 
of  the  function,  favoured  by  a  mechanical  appliance,  which 
has  to  be  devised  for  this  purpose. 

A  static  operation  in  the  first  case  ;    a  dynamic  operation 
in  the  second  case  :    such  are  the  modalities  of  functional 


FIG.   112. — Splint  for  radial  Paralysis 


prothesis.  It  is,  therefore,  diverse  in  its  methods  ;  its  appli- 
cations are  numerous,  because  the  wounds  in  question  are  not 
all  alike  ;  different  lesions  produce  very  different  effects ;  and, 
in  short,  every  problem  in  this  province  of  science  is  always 
a  question  of  a  particular  case.  Mechanics  and  physiology  are 
here  absolutely  sovereign.  They  complete  one  another  ;  and 
we  may  add  that  one  would  be  of  little  use  without  the  other. 


308         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

In  principle  the  static  appliances  resemble  the  ordinary 
types  of  prothetic  appliances,  made  of  leather,  and  articu- 
lated ;  they  are  protective  ;  they  are  adapted  to  fractures  of 
the  limbs,  to  cases  of  pseudarthrosis,  to  articular  disorders, 
to  cases  of  anchylosis.  The  dynamic  appliances  utilise  the 
traction  of  springs  or  elastic  bands  to  correct,  and,  at  need,  to 


FIG.  113. — The  same  doing  Office  Work. 

improve  the  motor  condition  of  the  hand,  the  fore-arm,  the 
lower  leg,  the  foot.  They  are  employed  in  cases  of  paialytic 
lesions,  resections  of  the  elbow,  etc. 

The  choice  of  the  appliance  and  its  mode  of  application 
should  be  inspired  by  simplicity,  convenience,  and  adaptation 
to  the  work  to  be  performed.  Let  us,  for  instance,  consider  the 
case  of  the  aluminium  splint  for  radial  paralysis.  A  small 
plate  of  metal  supports  the  hand,  while  the  splint  envelops 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


309 


the  wrist  and  keeps  the  supporting  plate  in  place  (Fig.  112). 
This  arrangement  is  enough  to  restore  strength  and  movement 
to  the  member  involved  :  the  subject  gradually  recovers 
almost  the  whole  of  his  professional  value  (Fig.  113).  Duch- 
•enne,  of  Boulogne,1  gave  particular  attention  to  this  problem 


FIG.  114. — Improved  Appliance  for  the  Cure  of  radial  Paralysis. 

of  the  muscular  paralysis  of  the  hand  and  fingers.  His  models 
of  appliances  for  elastic  traction  have  been  the  subject  of 
endless  imitation.  Invention,  in  devices  of  this  kind,  has 
become  all  but  impossible.  For  these  old  technical  methods  I 
will  refer  the  reader  to  the  Arsenal  de  Chirurgie  contemporaine* ; 
mentioning  the  very  simple  and  economical  models  of  Privat 
and  Belot  only  as  matters  of  historical  interest. 

1  De  V electrisation  localisee,  Paris,  1861,  2nd  ed. 

1  Gaujot  and  Spillmann,  Vol.  I.,  p.  602,  et  stq.,  Paris,  1867. 


310          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

Ingenuity  of  application,  however,  is  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance ;  above  all  when  based  upon  physiological  facts.  Fig. 
114,  in  this  connection,  represents  an  improved  model  which 
makes  use  of  the  principle  of  the  mechanical  arm.  The  wearing 
of  this  appliance  restored  the  normal  movements  of  the  hand 
and  the  wrist  in  the  space  of  ten  weeks.  Which  means  that 
by  intervening  in  good  time  one  often  succeeds  in  arresting 
nervous  degeneration  and  atrophy. 

Very  rare  are  the  circumstances  in  which  functional  prothesis 
cannot  assist  the  wounded  man  to  readapt  himself  to  his  work  ;. 
a  fact  which  the  physician  and  the  orthopaedist  must  not 
forget.  It  should  be  a  guide  to  their  experiments. 

France  has  done  much,  in  the  person  of  her  surgeons,  her 
physiologists,  and  her  mechanicians,  to  diminish  the  misfor- 
tunes of  those  who  have  been  grievously  injured  by  vrounds 
received  in  battle  or  by  the  accidents  of  industrial  life.  It 
would  have  been  strange  if  in  this  country,  in  which  prothesis 
had  its  birth,  where  in  all  ages  the  knights  who  have  had  a 
hand  blown  off  by  a  bombard  have  applied,  so  to  speak,  for 
new  members  to  our  specialists — humble  locksmiths  or  metal- 
workers ;  it  would  have  been  very  surprising,  I  say,  had  the 
ingenuity  of  our  scientists  and  our  artisans  failed  to  manifest 
itself  with  brilliance  and  distinction  in  a  domain  in  which  art* 
science,  and  humanity  meet  together. 


CHAPTER   XII 
THE   RE-EDUCATION  OF  WAR-CRIPPLES  (continued) 

III.— PROFESSIONAL  RE-EDUCATION 

CXLII.  General  Remarks.— Functionally  re-educated,  and 
equipped  with  the  prothetic  appliance  which  remedies  his 
infirmity,  his  mutilations  of  the  fingers,  or  his  loss  of  a  limb, 
the  war-cripple  may  profitably  be  subjected  to  a  professional 
re-education  properly  so-called.  I  have  already  stated  (§  102) 
that  for  the  last  forty  years  the  methods  employed  in  such 
re-education  have  had  a  character  of  charitable  relief  in- 
compatible with  the  spirit  of  industrial  enterprise  which  is 
making  its  influence  felt.  The  Scandinavian  institutions, 
in  which  crippled  children  of  both  sexes  receive  a  summary 
apprenticeship,  and  work  in  private  workshops,  which  ignore 
all  the  laws  of  economics  and  the  conditions  of  production, 
constitute  models  which  should  not  be  copied  where  soldiers 
are  concerned.  For  these  latter  are  adults ;  they  usually 
know  a  trade  ;  they  are  far  from  being  abnormal  or  outcasts. 
It  would  be  absolutely  unpardonable  did  such  a  confusion 
of  ideas  persist  in  the  minds  of  our  organisers.  And  it  would 
be  absolutely  contrary  to  the  reality  to  suppose  that  these 
wounded  soldiers  are  incapable  of  being  utilised,  in  a  methodical 
manner,  in  industrial  pursuits.  Finally,  in  almost  all  cases 
they  must  be  free  to  manage  their  own  affairs,  to  work  in  work- 
shop or  factory,  in  town  or  country,  unsubjected  to  the 
slightest  constraint. 

For  these  reasons  any  work  of  true  re-education  should  have 
recourse  to  a  strict  technique  which  -gives  the  wounded  soldier 

311 


312          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

a  professional  orientation,  which  measures  and  disciplines  his 
strength,  and  analyses  and  adapts  his  movements  to  the 
prothetic  appliances  and  the  tools  which  he  employs  ;  and, 
in  a  word,  obtains  the  maximum  output  from  the  latent 
reserves  of  individual  energy. 

In  Germany  the  Munich  Institute,  attended  by  three  or 
four  hundred  young  men,  has  effected  a  certain  improvement 
upon  the  institutions  already  mentioned  ;  and  this  because 
it  aims  at  a  regular  apprenticeship.  However,  the  general 
spirit  of  the  movement  is  not  very  different.  It  is  still  a 
charitable  institution  for  the  assistance  of  children.  Since 
the  beginning  of  this  war  the  Germans  and  the  Austrians 
have  endeavoured  to  establish  a  form  of  organisation  better 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  wounded  soldier,  which  in  many 
respects  reproduces  the  form  which  I  have  been  recommending 
for  the  last  two  years.1  Let  us  therefore  sum  up  the  elements 
of  this  scientific  re-education. 

CXLIII. — 1.  The  Education  and  Evaluation  of  Efforts. — 

In  this  connection  particularly  the  analysis  of  all  the  physio- 
logical and  mechanical  factors  of  labour  becomes  of  decisive 
importance. 

From  the  physiological  point  of  view  we  determine  the  condi- 
tions of  pace,  force,  and  the  daily  working  hours  which  will 
obtain  the  greatest  output  from  the  wounded  soldier.  The 
efforts  of  the  muscles  are  graphically  registered,  so  that  we 
can  appreciate  their  intensity  and  regularity,  and  their  suc- 
cession in  space  and  time. 

This  analysis  allows  no  anomaly  to  escape  it,  such  as  might 
be  caused  by  some  infirmity  which  is  hardly  apparent ;  or 
by  an  incorrect  prothesis,  or  by  the  incapacity  of  the  subject. 
From  this  circumstantial  examination  we  obtain  information 
of  great  practical  value. 

To  begin  with,  we  learn  that  if  the  stump  of  the  upper  arm 
is  less  than  5  inches  in  length  it  will  not  permit  of  continuous 
and  regular  work  of  any  duration  unless  it  has  been  function- 
ally re-educated  to  the  desired  degree.  Otherwise  the  fatigue 

1  Jules  Amar,  C.R.   Acad.  Sc.,  Vo1.  CLX.,  p.  559,  April,  1915. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  313 

would  be  so  great  that  the  worker  could  not  long  hold  out. 
A  thigh-stump  less  than  six  inches  in  length  renders  locomotion 
difficult  for  those  who  have  to  walk  frequently  on  account  of 
their  work.  The  factor  of  fatigue  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
as  it  enables  us  with  certainty  to  appreciate  the  professional 
capacities  of  wounded  and  mutilated  soldiers,  whatever  the 
orthopaedic  appliances  with  which  they  are  equipped. 
Because  they  have  not  taken  this  factor  into  account  the 
amateur  re-educators  have  seen  their  schools,  if  I  may  call 
them  so,  deserted  by  those  who  confidingly  repaired  to  them  for 
lessons  which  should  profit  them  in  the  future. 

Let  us  take  the  case  of  an  arm,  one  of  whose  segments  is 
powerless,  or  even  of  a  prothetic  arm.  The  tracing  made  by 
the  tool — file,  plane,  or  hammer — will  show  that  the  intensity 
of  the  efforts  is  diminished,  revealing  a  certain  incapacity  to 
press,  or  thrust,  or  control  the  tool  (Fig.  115).  In  the  irregu- 
larity of  the  curves  we  perceive  a  hesitating  muscular  activity  as 
yet  imperfectly  re-established,  especially  if  the  process  of  func- 
tional training  is  only  commencing.  If  this  activity,  even 
though  enfeebled,  is  not  restrained  by  an  artificial  limb,  the 
dynamographic  curves  are  all  similar,  and  the  tracings 
assume,  if  we  may  say  so,  an  individual,  personal  character, 
by  which  we  may  recognise  the  degree  of  incapacity  for  work. 

By  making  an  average  or  mean  tracing,  which  is  a  summary 
of  the  curves  produced  by  normal  workers,  skilfully  exercising 
the  same  craft ;  and  by  remembering  the  fact  that  unequal 
and  dissimilar  curves  betray  simulation,  we  shall  obtain  a 
scientific  basis  for  estimating  the  incapacity  to  perform  work, 
and  for  unmasking  the  malingerer.  Any  other  method  appears 
to  me  fallacious. 

I  have  always  recommended  the  introduction  of  a  technical 
method  possessing  this  undeniably  objective  character  in  the 
expert  investigation  of  industrial  accidents,  and  the  determina- 
tion of  military  pensions.  It  is  inevitable  that  such  a  method 
should  be  adopted. 

Any  attempt  on  the  part  of  an  infirm  subject  to  increase 
his  effort  involves  difficulties  of  respiration,  as  is  seen  in 
Fig.  115. 


314 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


If  the  curves  are  flattened  out,  by  rotating  the  recording 
cylinder  at  a  quicker  rate,  we  shall  be  able  to  perceive  the 
details  more  plainly.  The  effort  of  the  left  arm  commences 


cc  g 

if 

I  2 


before  that  of  the  right  arm,  even  in  cases  of  infirmity,  and  the 
latter  fulfils  a  function  of  support,  particularly  if  it  is  an  arti- 
ficial arm  (Fig.  116).  The  conception  of  the  orientation  of  the 
arms  when  working  results  from  this  investigation,  and  it  is 


If 

If 


316 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


precisely  of  this  investigation  that  the  adaptation  of  prothesis 
to  professional  education  consists.      The  healthy  limb  should 


as  a  rule  guide  and  control  the  tool,  the  artificial   or  infirm 
member  serving  only  as  support  (Fig.  116a). 

In  cases  in  which  the  upper  arm  is  amputated  (Fig.  117), 
AVC  may  deduce  from  the  records  the  advantages  of  this  or 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


317 


that  position  as  regards  the  development  of  the  maximum 
effective  power.     In  such  cases  there  is  not  and  cannot  be  a 


K 

11 
•li 


H 

^ 

O    oS 
II 


85 

g-,3 


symmetrical  action  of  the  arms  ;    and  the  inequality  which 
necessarily  results  diminishes  the  output  of  work. 

In  reducing  this  depreciation  to  a  minimum,  it  is  by  no 
means  a  matter  of  indifference  whether  the  prothetic  member 


318 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


acts  upon  the  handle  or  the  extremity  of  the  tool  ;  whether 
it  exerts  the  motive  force,  or  is  the  directing  organ  ;  whether 
the  articulation  of  the  elbow  is  no  longer  free  ;  or,  if  the  articu- 
lation is  anchytosed,  whether  it  is  fixed  at  this  angle  rather 
than  that  ;  or,  lastly,  whether  the  stump  transmits  its  effort 
to  a  long  or  a  short  lever  (Fig.  1 18).  Prothesis  must  therefore 
collaborate  in  the  process  of  re-education,  and  must  be  inti- 
mately connected  with  professional  technique.  No  considera- 


FJG.  119. — Forminga  Left-handed  Worker  with  the  ,«elf-registering  Jointing- plane. 

tions  of  cost  must  be  allowed  to  prevent  the  employment  of 
the  appliances  best  adapted  to  utilise  the  entire  social  output 
of  the  wounded  soldier. 

CXLIV.— 2.  Education  of  the  Movements. — The  Forma- 
tion of  Left-handed  Workers. — I  have  stated  that  the  artificial 
arm  fulfils,  as  a  general  thing,  a  function  of  support,  the  sound 
arm  doing  the  effective  work.  This  fact  is  self-evident  in 
cases  of  amputation  of  the  left  arm,  when  the  right  arm  retains 
its  normal  activity  ;  at  least,  it  is  so  in  right-handed  subjects. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


319 


FIG.  120. — Education  of  the  Movements  by  means  of 
the  dynamographic  Hammer. 


320 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


But  in  the  contrary  case  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  re- 
educate the  left  arm,  so  that  it  may  acquire  the  strength 
and  dexterity  of  the  amputated  member.  This  is  easily 
effected  :  in  the  first  place,  by  means  of  the  self-registering 
jointing-plane  (Fig.  119),  the  patient  follows  the  adaptation 
of  his  appliance  and  the  .quality  of  his  movements,  which 
he  trains  in  strength  and  accuracy,  increasing  his  pace  and  his 


FIG.  121. 


working  effort  day  by  day.  Then  he  assures  himself  that 
his  left  arm  is  beginning  to  strike  a  very  quick  blow  with  the 
hammer,  and  that  he  can  just  crush  a  morsel  of  chalk  placed 
upon  an  anvil,  despite  the  amplitude  of  the  movement. 

The  dynamographic  hammer  (Fig.  120)  gives  a  graphic  record 
of  the  elements  which  form  this  example  of  physiological 
pedagogics  (Fig.  121)  :  the  amplitude  of  the  hammer-stroke 
is  measured  by  that  of  the  curve  ;  the  duration,  /,  is  recorded 
on  the  cylinder ;  the  force  exerted  is  expressed  by  the  pro- 


THE    RE-EDUCATIOX    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  321 

duct,  m  v,  m  being  the  mass  of  the  hammer  and  v  its  velocity. 

The  trajectory  of  the  hammer  is  measured  by  the  length  of 
cord  /  unwound  from  a  large  aluminium  pulley  ;  this  actuates 
a  small  pulley  mounted  on  the  same 
axle,  and  controlled  by  a  spring 
which  re-winds  it  (Fig.  122).  The 
cord  which  runs  from  the  spring  to 
the  small  pulley  moves  the  inscribing 
needle  upon  the  recording  cylinder.1 

Lastly,   we  must  accustom  the  left 
hand  to  trace  an  oval  of  -8  inches  by 
1  inch,  and  a  square  whose  side  is  1 
inch,   which  are  cut  out   of  a  sheet 
of  copper.     This  stencil  is  placed  on 
the    paper,    and    the    edges    of 
the  apertures  thus  formed   are 
followed  by  means  of  a  pointed 
pencil  or  stylus.    The  repetition 
of  these    different  exer- 
cises,     at      an      always 
increasing  pace,  guaran- 
tees the  formation,  in  5 
or  6  weeks,  of  skilled  left- 
handed     men,     able     to 
work,    write,    play,    and 
draw  with  accuracy. 

Educated  or  intelligent 
subjects  acquire  this 
capacity  in  a  very  short 
time.  Agricultural 
labourers  take  longer  to 
train,  and  one  is  obliged  to  act  upon  their  minds  by 

1  The  ratio  of  the  pulleys  is  1  :  15,  so  that  the  amplitude  of  the  curves,  multi- 
plied by  15,  gives  the  trajectory  of  the  hammer.  From  this  and  the  registered 
duration  of  the  stroke  we  deduce  the  velocity  per  second,  v,  of  the  hammer. 
And  as  we  know  the  weight,  ic,  of  this  tool,  we  can  calculate  the  mass,  m.  Hence 

WIV          W          V 

the  produc'     -  or  —  x       (g  being  the  value  of  gravity). 


FIG.  122. — Self-registering  Hammer. 


322          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

frequently  repeated  examples,  and  by  the  frequent  handling 
of  agricultural  implements. 

All  things  being  considered,  a  certain  clumsiness  will  be 
displayed  by  these  newly-made  left-handed  workers,  which 
will  take  some  time  to  disappear  ;  but  it  will  be  much  less 
perceptible  in  callings  requiring  the  exertion  of  strength  than 
in  those  which  demand  skill  and  dexterity,  and  in  the  per- 
formance of  clerical  work.  Nevertheless,  the  faculty  of  adapta- 
tion is  of  superlative  importance,  and  some  cripples  will  be 
able  to  use  their  stumps  as  well  as  their  sound  limbs.  We  are 
acquainted  with  extraordinary  examples,  to  which  we  shall 
not  further  refer,  since  such  phenomena  are  not  in  accordance 
with  natural  laws,  and  we  are  concerned  exclusively  with 
these. 

CXLV.— 3.  Physiological  Education.— Parallel  to  this 
series  of  observations  we  must  pursue  another  whose  aim  is  the 
investigation  of  respiratory  exchanges,  in  order  to  deduce  from 
these  the  degree  of  fatigue  induced.  In  one  position  or  another 
of  the  body,  or  the  tool,  or  the  artificial  arm,  either  a  waste  of 
energy  or  an  economy  will  be  revealed  by  such  measurements. 

Hence  we  shall  obtain  information  of  very  great  importance 
in  the  formation  of  the  apprentice  and  the  worker :  a  true 
object-lesson  for  the  worker  who  takes  pleasure  in  observation 
and  seeks  enlightenment,  and,  above  all,  a  guarantee 
against  overwork,  and  an  indication  of  the  danger  of  breath- 
lessness,  or  dyspnoea. 

I  do  not  insist  upon  the  other  physiological  factors,  such 
as  the  size,  weight,  or  strength  of  the  subject,  or  the  condition 
of  his  reflexes,  and  the  swiftness  of  his  reactions,  which  it 
is  possible  to  improve.  These  individual  constants  also  are 
a  guide  to  the  choice  of  a  calling.  They  will  be  determined 
when  the  functional  re-education  is  completed.  If  this  latter 
were  not  judged  to  be  necessary  we  should  simply  determine 
the  subject's  personal  equation,  his  vocation,  his  tastes  and  his 
previous  calling.  A  worker  who  has  served  the  same  employer 
for  a  number  of  years  is  taken  to  be  a  well-behaved  and  respect- 
able workman. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  323 

The  individual  character  must  not  be  neglected,  for  it 
affects  the  finding  of  employment.  It  also  reveals  another 
aspect  of  working-class  life — the  cares  of  a  family.  When 
his  environment,  his  wife  and  children,  do  not  leave  the  man 
the  peace  of  mind  necessary  to  good  work,  when  illness  or 
grief  has  descended  upon  the  home,  the  deepest  wells  of 
human  activity  are  poisoned,  and  there  is  a  certain  disorder  in 
his  actions  and  his  ideas.  Thus  character  is  visibly  affected, 
and  for  the  worse,  despite  the  exercise  of  the  strongest  deter- 
mination. 

The  wounded  soldier,  then,  receives  an  education  which 
regulates  his  efforts  and  his  speed,  disciplining  his  movements 
and  adapting  them  to  exact  operations,  every  detail  of  which 
has  been  studied.  He  is  spared  all  superfluous  fatigue,  all 
waste  of  time  and  energy. 

This  economy,  and  the  skill  and  ability  of  the  worker,  are 
always  increased  by  his  intelligence  ;  which,  if  it  was  not 
previously  awakened,  will  be  aroused  by  the  theoretical  instruc- 
tion given  during  his  re-education  ;  a  course  of  instruction 
which  will  be  in  harmony  with  his  chosen  professional  orienta- 
tion, and  which  will  give  him  a  certain  knowledge  of  mechanics, 
design,  his  own  language,  and  accountancy ;  or  again  of 
agricultural  chemistry,  mechanical  cultivation,  rural  economy, 
etc.  And  from  the  sum  of  qualifications  and  inclinations, 
recognised,  encouraged,  and  evaluated,  we  deduce  the  direction 
to  be  followed  by  his  apprenticeship  or  re-adaptation,  and  the 
social  value  of  the  worker,  the  human  factor  only  being  con- 
sidered. 

CXLVL— 4.  The  Adaptation  of  the  Tools  Employed.— 

Now  in  addition  to  these  moral  and  physical  aptitudes,  which 
are  appealed  to  and  encouraged,  and  which,  in  a  sense,  are 
given  first  place,  we  must  consider  the  mechanical  factors  of 
labour.  To  begin  with,  these  factors  are  determined  by  the 
investigation  of  the  principal  movements  necessitated  by  the 
exercise  of  a  craft.  For,  as  a  rule,  the  worker  merely  repeats, 
without  important  variations,  a  certain  number  of  gestures, 
in  which  the  different  segments  of  the  various  limbs  occupy 


324         THE   PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

well-defined  positions.  From  this  investigation,  which  may  be 
simplified  and  rendered  as  exact  as  possible  by  cinematography, 
we  deduce  the  professional  hierarchy  of  the  two  members, 
upper  or  lower,  the  preponderance  of  one  over  the  other, 
their  separate  or  combined  action,  the  order  of  their  succession 
in  time,  and  their  trajectory  in  space. 

No  basis  on  which  we  could  undertake  the  re-adaptation  of 
the  wounded  soldier  and  his  orientation  toward  this  or  that 
calling  could  be  nearer  the  truth  than  this. 

In  the  second  place,  the  mechanical  factor  involves  the 
choice  of  tools,  and  the  employment  of  machinery,  motors, 
and  special  devices,  which,  in  workshop  or  factory,  will  sur- 
round the  war-cripple  with  professional  conditions  favourable 
to  his  useful  employment.  It  may  well  be  imagined  that  a 
mechanical  improvement  may  modify  the  control  of  a  machine, 
facilitate  the  execution  of  a  process,  or  simplify  the  movements 
of  the  war-cripple,  and  thereby  be  of  considerable  service 
to  him. 

This  or  that  operation  which  demanded  the  use  of  both  hands 
might  be  effected  by  one  only,  and  would  occupy  a  great  number 
of  "  armless  "  workers.  Another,  in  which  a  small  motor 
might  supplement  the  strength  of  the  worker,  would  serve 
the  same  purpose.  If,  for  example,  the  accelerator  or  change- 
speed  gear  of  a  motor-car  or  lorry  were  controlled  by  hand, 
by  means  of  a  convenient  lever,  the  one-legged  chauffeur  would 
be  able  to  remain  at  his  old  trade  ;  and  he  would  be  given  an 
artificial  leg  instead  of  a  "  pestle." 

The  tools  and  implements  are  numerous  in  which  mechanical 
substitution  is  possible  at  a  very  slight  expense.  Controls 
may  be  grouped  so  that  the  worker  need  not  move  from  place 
to  place ;  the  weight  of  the  work  in  hand  may  be  counter- 
poised ;  and  the  means  of  adjustment  of  machine-tools  (lathes, 
drilling-machines,  etc.)  may  be  improved. 

Thus  it  occurred  to  me  to  adapt  for  the  use  of  one-armed 
men  the  punch  which  is  employed  for  perforating  railway 
tickets.  Instead  of  holding  the  ticket  in  one  hand  and  the 
punch  in  the  other  the  one-armed  man  hangs  the  implement 
on  his  waistcoat,  by  means  of  two  patent  fasteners,  or  a  hook  ; 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  <32o 

a  small  spring  holds  the  ticket  in  place,  and  it  suffices  to  press 
the  lever  in  order  to  work  the  punch  and  the  date-stamp  (Fig. 
123).  This  modification  costs  a  few  pence,  and  there  are 
several  thousands  of  posts  on  the  French  railways  which  might 


FIG.  123. — One-armed  Man  using  Punch  perforating 
Railway-tickets. 


l>e  filled  by  one-armed  soldiers,  the  normal  workers  being 
employed  in  other  branches  of  the  services. 

The  Paris-Lyons  and  Mediterranean  Railway  Company, 
which  gave  ear  to  my  proposals  on  this  subject,  has  adopted 
the  course  indicated,  anxious  to  promote  the  welfare  of  those 
splendid  fellows,  the  French  railway  workers. 

Such  innovations  should  receive  continual  encouragement, 


326          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

and  should  be  stimulated,  if  need  be,  by  prizes,  and  this 
particularly  in  the  agricultural  world.  One  result  will  be  a 
machinery  of  re-adaptation  in  the  interests  of  war-cripples,  for 
which  they  themselves  will  provide  the  physiological  data, 
and  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  introduce  in  practice.  But 
care  should  always  be  taken  not  to  complicate  this  machinery. 
When  the  war-cripple  has  been  equipped  with  his  worker's 
arm,  with  the  universal  holder  and  universal  ring,  there  are  few 
circumstances  under  which  special  tools  or  implements  are 
necessary  to  him  ;  he  does  not  experience  the  hesitations  and 
the  delays  in  "  getting  started  "  of  which  an  employer,  justly 
concerned  as  to  the  time-sheet,  might  be  tempted  to  suspect 
him. 

In  prothesis,  the  multiplication  of  organs  of  prehension  is* 
both  industrially  and  physiologically  speaking,  fallacious. 

In  the  Danish  institutions,  or  in  that  of  Munich,  the  cripples 
make  use  of  tools  and  implements  adapted  to  their  infirmities. 
But  in  these  institutions  neither  time  nor  money  matters,  a 
point  of  view  easily  understood,  but  one  which  we  are  far  from 
sharing. 

If  I  had  proposed  to  discuss  the  problem  of  the  work  of  the 
blind,  or  of  men  who  have  lost  both  arms,  I  should  have  described 
the  special  equipment  which  is  adapted  thereto,  and  which, 
for  these  unfortunates,  is  absolutely  indispensable.  But  this 
would  have  led  me  away  from  my  present  programme. 

I  shall  therefore  reserve  for  the  end  of  this  volume  a  brief 
survey  of  the  subject  of  relief  by  means  of  employment. 

CXLVII.  The  Advantages  of  Scientific  Organisation. — 

1.  THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VALUE  OF  THE  WAR-CRIPPLE. — This 
method  of  organisation,  whose  exactness  is  beyond  all  doubl, 
has  often  seemed  too  rigorous  and  too  scientific,  and  has  aroused 
the  fear  that  it  would  be  difficult  of  application.  This  fear 
is  not  only  regrettable  ;  it  is  totally  unfounded.  The  scientific 
method  is  as  simple  as  it  is  reliable.  After  a  preliminary 
stage  of  falling  into  step,  which  requires  a  certain  amount  of 
attention,  it  can  be  applied  with  great  rapidity.  I  have 
observed  some  three  thousand  persons,  of  all  ages  and  all 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES 


327 


stations,  and  I  have  never  required  them  to  subject  themselves 
to  any  experimentation  which  was  in  the  slightest  degree 


FIG.  124.— Case  of  Ablation  of  thejfour  Fingers  (Carpenter). 

disagreeable.     The  majority  of  the  data  respecting  the  wounded 
soldier,  concerning  the  origin  and  results  of  his  wound,  his 


328          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

Example  of  Certificate  of  Industrial  Qualifications.] 


DIRECTOR 

TELEPHONE    No. 


HIGHER    SCHOOL 
CERTIFICATE    OF 


SUBJECT  No. 

PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Weight 

Christian  name  • 

Height  —  erect  (E) 

\2e 

—  seated  (S) 

Military  rank  
Address  

Thoracic  co-efficient  (g)  
Liberty  of  movements  . 

Wound  received  on  the  

Region  affected  

Length  of  sound  limb  

Operations  

Dimensions  of  stump  or  stumps  

•: 

Tissues  injured  

Useful  muscular  power  

Complications  

Results 

Previous  profession  

Loss  of  functional  capacity  

Wife      

Children  

THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  329 

OF    RE-EDUCATION. 
INDUSTRIAL    QUALIFICATIONS. 


CITY    OF. 


PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 


Extent  of  education — 
General  ... 


Technical  ... 


Condition  of  reflexes.-. 


Personal  equation. 


Vocation 


Tastes  


Character  

Suitable  profession 


INDUSTRIAL  QUALIFICATIONS. 
Condition  of  re -apprenticeship.... 


Tendencies   to  be  observed  in   work 


Probable  duration  of  re-education. 


Diminution  of  daily  output. 


General  remarks 


(Signed) 


The  Director. 


330          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

mental  and  physical  aptitudes,  his  profession  before  the  war, 
the  new  inclinations  which  he  may  reveal,  and  his  family 
responsibilities,  are  collected  in  less  than  an  hour. 


FIG.  125. — The  same  at  Work,  thanks  to  special  artificial  Fingers. 

These  various  elements,  carefully  verified,  with  all  possibility 
of  dispute  eliminated,  are  tabulated  on  a  form  which  consti- 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  331 

tutes  the  subject's  certificate  of  industrial  qualifications  (see 
above).  This  certificate  is  personal.  Nothing  is  wanting 
but  an  indication  of  the  professional  capacities  resulting  from 
re-apprenticeship  or  re-adaptation.  This  will  be  added  later. 

Information  of  this  nature,  obtained  by  the  methods 
described,  inspires  confidence  ;  it  enables  the  interested  party 
to  feel  his  way,  to  choose  his  path  ;  a  more  and  more  curious 
observer  of  an  inquiry  which  he  understands,  he  emerges  from 
it  consoled  and  encouraged  ;  he  feels  as  though  he  had  been 
freed  from  that  obsessive  burden,  anxiety  as  regards  the  future. 
Science  has  worked  within  him  a  moral  transformation  of  the 
happiest  nature,  which  he  does  not  seek  to  dissimulate. 

And  not  only  does  the  future  workman  or  employe  derive 
from  this  examination  a  real  moral  advantage  :  he  also  becomes 
aware  of  his  precise  social  value.  The  employer,  too,  is  intro- 
duced to  this  unsuspected  sphere,  in  which  he  sees  forces 
recuperated  which  he  believed  to  be  destroyed  ;  he  feels,  above 
all,  that  they  are  trained  to  serve  with  a  maximum  of  output. 
For  the  rest,  the  certificate  of  qualifications  mentions  the  loss 
of  daily  output  resulting  from  the  wound,  estimated  by  experi- 
ment in  connection  with  a  measured  and  recorded  task. 

CXLVIII. — 2.  THE  OUTPUT  OF  PROTHESIS. — In  the  case  of 
those  who  have  suffered  the  loss  of  a  limb  by  amputation  the 
evaluation  must  be  based  upon  the  gravity  of  the  mutilation 
and  the  resources  of  prothesis.  Are  some  of  the  phalanges 
lacking,  or  even  all  the  fingers,  the  thumb  excepted  ?  The  loss 
of  industrial  capacity  will  be  from  5  per  cent,  to  15  per  cent., 
according  to  the  trade  or  craft,  on  the  condition  that  the 
missing  phalanges  are  skilfully  replaced  by  prothetic  seg- 
ments.1 

The  carpenter  or  small  machinist  is  then  able  to  resume  his 
accustomed  trade  without  appreciable  inconvenience  (Figs. 
124  and  125).  He  himself  succeeds  in  re-educating  his  sensi- 

1  It  is  difficult  to  make  up  for  the  loss  of  a  thumb.  The  Romans  exempted 
persons  thus  mutilated  from  military  service.  However,  in  the  case  of  calling* 
which  do  not  demand  great  efforts  of  digital  pressure  or  compression  prothesis 
has  succeeded  in  supplying  fairly  useful  artificial  thumbs. 


332         THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

tiveness  to  pressure,  and  in  correcting  the  little  awkwardnesses 
which  at  the  outset  characterise  most  of  his  movements.     The 


amputation  of  one  hand  rarely  forces  a  man  to  change  his 
profession ;  and  this  also  applies  to  the  loss  of  one  fore-arm, 
-when  the  stump  measures  more  than  1-6  inches  from  the  internal 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


333 


crease  of  the  elbow.  The  loss  may  be  remedied  by  the  worker's 
type  of  fore-arm,  or  by  the  lever  type.  The  wearer's  vocation 
will  decide  the  choice,  and  it  is  the  part  of  re-adaptation  lo 
exploit  the  war-cripple's  resources  of  functional  power.  He 


FIG.  127. — Fitter  working  in  his  Employer's  Workshop. 


may  hesitate,  may  become  discouraged,  may  distrust  himself. 
The  facts,  clearly  and  adroitly  displayed  before  his  eyes,  pro- 
duce in  him  the  determination  to  try.  And  this  is  everything. 
The  war-cripple  who  wants  to  try  is  already  near  success. 
In  this  connection  I  will  mention  various  trades  and  crafts  in 
which  wounded  soldiers — sculptors,  marble-cutters  (Fig.  126), 


331 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


fitters  (Fig.  127),  bookbinders,  tailors,  printers — have  been 
able  to  resume  work  after  a  brief  training  ;  but  it  was  previ- 
ously ascertained  that  their  strength  remained  in  a  degree 


FIG.  128.— Faulty  Prothesis  (filing  Metal). 

necessary  to  the  exercise  of  their  callings.  The  amputation 
of  the  upper  arm  demands  a  more  laborious  re-education,  which 
only  the  scientific  method  can  guarantee.  In  the  case  of 
these  major  operations  the  loss  of  output  is  always  from  15 
per  cent,  to  30  per  cent.,  despite  a  superior  prothesis. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  335 

When  this  is  defective,  misconceived,  or  of  an  empirical 
nature  the  output  is  considerably  reduced.  I  find,  for  example, 
that  in  one  "  School  of  Re-Education  "  men  are  taught  to 
file  by  squeezing  the  handle  of  the  file  into  a  ring  (Fig.  128). 
Here,  in  the  first  place,  is  a  mechanical  fault,  for  the  ring 
has  no  articulation  which  makes  it  possible,  as  with  the 
universal  holder,  to  point  the  tool  in  any  given  direction  ; 
secondly,  only  a  fraction  of  the  power  of  the  stump  is  utilised. 
Similar  details,  all  of  which  have  their  importance,  show  that 
re-education  must  not  be  a  matter  of  groping  for  results,  or 
of  chance. 

For  the  rest,  what  conceptions  can  the  instructors  obtain 
to  help  them  in  the  task  of  professional  orientation,  save  those 
which  the  observation  of  prothesis  in  action,  and  an  efficacious 
prothesis,  enables  them  to  form  concerning  the  present  value 
of  the  war-cripple,  and  the  difficulty  of  his  craft  ?  I  will 
mention  a  sufficiently  striking  case.  A  benevolent  society 
sent  me  a  patient  whose  left  upper  arm  had  been  amputated, 
leaving  a  stump  3-9  inches  in  length.  He  was  a  maitre  d'hotel, 
and  he  was  sent  to  me  to  learn  whether  he  could  not  learn 
Russian  with  a  view  to  becoming  a  hotel  interpreter.  I  need 
not  describe  the  amazement  of  the  wounded  man  when  I 
advised  him  to  resume  his  old  calling.  Yet  he  did  so,  and  with 
success.  Provided  with  a  good  worker's  arm,  he  was  easily 
able  to  hold  his  knife,  and  display  his  skill  in  the  art  of  Vatel. 
The  same  thing  happened  in  the  case  of  a  foreman  butcher. 

Agricultural  workers  or  farmers,  provided  one  stump  is  of 
greater  length  than  4-8  inches,  should  be  able  to  endure  all 
the  fatigues  of  their  calling.  The  universal  ring  and  the  hook 
are  of  inestimable  value  to  them.  And  always,  or  almost 
always,  the  artificial  organ  will  serve  to  support  the  implement, 
or  to  bear  upon  it.  Experience  leaves  me  in  no  doubt  what- 
ever upon  this  point :  but  our  peasants  must  be  interested 
and  instructed.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  man  is  forced  to  desert 
his  original  calling,  the  quality  of  his  work  will  inevitably 
suffer.  This  is  a  truth  which  we  must  have  the  courage  to 
affirm,  and  which  cannot  diminish  the  merits  of  scientific 
re-adaptation  to  work. 


336         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

CXLIX. — 3.  SIMPLICITY  AND  RAPIDITY. — To  all  these  proved 
advantages  of  the  new  method  of  re-education,  let  me  add  the 
testimony  of  engineers  and  physicians  who  have  been  applying 
the  method  for  the  last  eighteen  months.  A  period  of  4  to  5 
weeks  in  my  laboratory  enables  them  to  familiarise  themselves 
with  the  technical  details  of  the  appliances  provided,  and 
the  methods  of  investigation  and  professional  orientation 
employed. 

Of  the  many  institutions  of  which  they  are  the  directors, 
in  France,  Italy,  England,  Canada,  and  Russia,  I  will  make 
particular  mention  of  the  £cole  Superieure  of  Bordeaux,  the 
Roman  school,  and  the  Milan  Institute.  These  establishments 
are  attended  by  an  average  of  75,  80,  and  130  war-cripples  ; 
but  they  provide  a  real  re-education,  whose  results  are 
reliable.  The  number  of  the  pupils  is  tending  to  increase, 
and  it  is  found  that  the  certainty  of  the  method  employed 
exerts  a  decisive  influence  upon  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
candidates. 

The  benevolent  institutions  which  have  been  scattered 
here  and  there  at  the  inspiration  of  empiricism,  and  which 
are  striving  to  attain  the  same  object,  are  wasting  time  and 
money  ;  they  are  condemned  to  disappear,  unless  they  strike 
tardy  roots  into  a  better-prepared  soil. 

However,  I  will  mention  the  workshops  for  the  re-apprentice- 
ship of  subjects  with  mutilated  fingers  (Fig.  129) ;  they  are 
economical,  and  facilitate  the  work  of  orientation. 

In  the  meantime  the  scientific  system  has  proved  its  qualities, 
which  we  may  characterise  as  follows  : 

It  quickly  and  efficaciously  re-educates  the  infirm  or  muti- 
lated soldier  ;  it  guarantees  the  endurance  of  the  workers 
it  has  trained,  and  also  their  rational  utilisation,  and  their 
moral;  the  information  which  it  gives  the  employee  is  sincere, 
and  it  establishes  a  feeling  of  confidence  ;  it  disciplines  the 
professional  activities,  and  inculcates  habits  of  method  and 
order. 

To  fail  to  realise  all  the  practical  and  effective  truth  con- 
tained in  these  principles  is  to  be  gravely  misled,  and  to  incur 
the  heaviest  responsibilities. 


338          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

CL.  The  Methods  of  Scientific  Organisation  must  now  be 
considered.  As  re-education  cannot  be  obligatory  for  all,  nor  con- 
fined to  a  single  region,1  an  active  propaganda  should  be  carried 
out  everywhere;  in  the  family,  in  schools,  and  in  public  meetings; 
in  order  to  induce  the  hesitating  war-cripple  to  enter  his  name 
without  delay  for  admittance  to  the  establishments  organised 
for  his  benefit,  in  which  are  accumulated  such  treasures  of 
experience,  science,  and  human  solidarity  as  no  other  nation 
could  offer  him.  From  the  day  of  his  entry  until  the  day 
when  employment  is  found  for  hini  in  commerce,  industry, 
or  agriculture,  there  will  be  nothing  lacking  in  the  consideration 
and  the  sacrifice  to  which  he  has  an  absolute  right. 

I  have  said,  and  I  repeat2 — until,  I  hope,  I  have  made 
myself  understood — that  professional  re-education  continues 
and  completes  the  functional  education.  The  two  together 
constitute  an  undeniable  physiological  unity.3  But  it  is  also 
necessary  that  they  should  form  a  psychological  unity,  in  the 
sense  that  the  wounded  soldier  should  be  prepared  for  his 
future  calling  from  the  time  he  enters  the  hospital  To  this  end 
he  will  be  given  to. read  a  sort  of  guide  and  prospectus,  in  which 
will  be  described  the  kind  of  infirmity  from  which  he  is  suffering, 
the  professional  destination  to  which  it  points,  and  the  positive 
results  of  re-education  and  re-adaptation.  Professors  of 
manual  craftsmanship  will  visit  the  hospital  to  give  lessons 
with  cinematographic  demonstrations.  Above  all  the  instruc- 
tion given  should  be  concrete  and  realistic,  consisting  of  facts 
rather  than  of  words.  Let  no  promise  be  made  if  there  is 
risk  of  disappointment  on  the  morrow.  Let  the  wounded 
soldier  feel  himself  sustained  by  knowledge  and  experience 

1  The  law  of  France  to-day  admits,  as  the  result  of  the  fortunate  intervention 
of  M.  Pierre  Rameil  and  the  report  of  M.  Brunet,  both  deputies,  that  professional 
re-education  is  obligatory  in  the  case  of  any  victim  of  amputation  who  has  the 
right  to  a  military  pension.  Let  us  note  with  Monsieur  Rameil  that  this  re- 
education is  the  right  of  the  wounded  soldier,  a  right  which  places  the  obligation 
rather  to  the  charge  of  the  State.  (Concerning  this  interesting  discussion  see 
rOfficiel,  session  of  14  April,  1916.) 

*  C.B.  Acad.  Sc.,  26  April,  1916,  Vol.  CLX.,  p.  559. 

'  The  physiological  effects  of  professional  exercises  are  now  beneficially  utilised 
in  the  Austro-German  hospitals  under  the  name  of  Arbeits-therapie. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  339 

united  to  probity,  and  by  the  material  help  of  a  generous 
country.  It  is  important  to  banish  from  his  heart  the  bitter- 
ness which  is  always  left  there  by  charitable  assistance. 

To  sum  up  :  to  commence  the  process  of  professional 
re-education  as  early  as  possible ;  to  set  the  bait,  as  it 
were,  in  the  hospitals,  by  the  visits  of  competent  and  highly 
tactful  teachers,  by  lectures  and  ocular  demonstrations 
whose  teaching  cannot  be  resisted  :  such  is  the  indispensable 
programme. 

In  practice  professional  re-education  will  not  reach  all 
our  wounded  soldiers.  Some,  who  possess  a  certain  compet- 
ence, will  return  to  their  homes,  and  will  find  some  means  of 
occupying  themselves ;  well  equipped,  they  can  re-adapt 
themselves  to  their  work  in  their  own  way.  Being  educated, 
they  will  attach  themselves,  by  the  ties  of  intelligence 
and  determination,  to  the  general  professional  life  of  the 
country. 

Others — a  very  small  minority,  I  hope — will  hide  themselves 
away,  in  indifference  and  idleness,  which  will  inevitably  drag 
them  down  into  poverty.  These  disastrous  habits  have  had 
time,  alas  !  to  assume  a  distressing  development  during  the 
years  in  which  nothing  has  been  done  for  the  organisation  of 
the  work  of  wounded  soldiers  ;  while  private  institutions  for 
re-education  have  exhausted  themselves  in  futile  groping. 
Monetary  assistance  has  been  abused,  since  it  has  been  given 
without  the  definite  condition  of  being  the  reward  of  work, 
and  thereby  a  spirit  of  idleness  and  mendicity  has  been  created 
of  which  it  will  be  difficult  to  cure  the  always  interesting 
victims  of  the  war. 

This  evil  has  been  enabled  to  increase  to  such  a  point  (and  I 
have  investigated  it  very  thoroughly  in  the  wounded  soldiers 
whom  I  am  studying,  in  this  connection  among  others)  that  it 
has  seemed  to  me  irreparable  ;  and  I  recently  complained  of  it1 
in  the  hope  of  opening  the  eyes  of  those  who,  I  can  readily 
believe,  have  closed  them  to  the  things  of  this  world. 

But  we  must  behave  as  if  they  would  one  day  open  them, 
and  describe  the  lealities. 

1  Revue  Scientifique,  p.  367,  1916. 


340         THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF   INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

CLI. — Schools  of  Professional  Re-education. — The  great 
majority  of  wounded  soldiers,  instructed  and  stimulated  by 
example,  will  resort  to  the  higher  schools  of  re-education,  thus 
denominated  in  order  te  indicate  that  a  pedagogic  and  technical 
method  will  be  employed  in  them,  with  superior  guarantees 
as  to  their  organisation.  One  will  be  created  for  each  economic 
region,  the  nature  and  importance  of  the  regional  products, 
and  the  resources  of  the  producers — in  the  shape  of  plant 
and  equipment — serving  as  guide.  For  France  I  propose 
eleven  regions,  that  is  to  say,  eleven  schools,  distributed 
among  the  cities  of  Paris,  Rennes,  Lille,  Nancy,  Lyons,  Limoges, 
Bordeaux,  Toulouse,  Marseilles,  Algiers,  and  Tunis.  The 
original  grouping  here  indicated  is  by  no  means  absolute, 
although  it  seems  to  me  rational.  One  might  replace  the 
cities  mentioned  by  others,  combining  economic  elements 
such  as  our  departments  in  fresh  units. 

Now  the  regional  organisation  appears  in  this  connection 
to  be  opposed  to  the  departmental  organisation  ;  or,  at  least, 
so  some  have  supposed.  The  truth  is  quite  otherwise.  It  is 
because  there  are  so  few  centres  that  numbers  of  small  schools 
and  workshops  of  re-apprenticeship,  scattered  all  over  the 
country,  have  been  born  of  private  initiative.  They  have 
followed  the  movement  of  the  wounded  men  emerging  from 
the  military  depots  ;  for  all  these  men,  once  discharged  and 
restored  to  civil  life,  have  tried,  more  or  less,  to  work  and  to 
find  situations.  Generous  people — whom  we  must  not  tire 
of  praising  in  proportion  to  the  indifference  displayed  by  official 
figureheads — have  encouraged  them  by  pecuniary  relief,  by 
recommendations  to  employers,  and  by  the  improvised  insti- 
tution of  special  workshops.  The  Conservatoire  des  Arts 
et  Metiers  has  several  such  workshops,  affiliated  to  the  labora- 
tory of  which  I  am  the  director,  if  only  for  the  sake  of  pro- 
fessional orientation  and  the  assistance  of  my  prothetic 
department.  Can  these  small  departmental  organisations 
be  made  to  harmonise  with  the  existence  of  large  regional 
centres  ?  Certainly,  provided  these  latter  undertake  the  work 
of  functional  re-education,  examine  and  provide  appropriate 
prothetic  appliances,  and  draw  up  certificates  of  qualifications  ; 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  341 

after  which  they  will  send  the  wounded  and  mutilated  soldiers 
to  their  respective  departments,  where  they  will  be  near  their 
families  ;  that  is  to  say,  to  the  local  workshops,  whose  function 
is  then  complementary  and  decisive. 

CLIL— (a)  THE  ORGANISATION  OF  A  CENTRE  OF  RE-EDUCA- 
TION.— The  Higher  School  of  Re-education  should  exist  side 
by  side  with  these  elementary  workshops.  Here  follows  an 
account  of  its  organisation  in  France,  as  it  should  have  been 
from  the  beginning,  and  as  the  regions  and  cities  of  which  I 
have  already  spoken — Bordeaux,  for  example — have  made  it 
as  a  result  of  my  indications. 

Each  school  possesses  a  technical  department  which  prepares 
the  certificates  of  qualifications,  attends  to  all  medical  and 
orthopaedic  requirements,  and  undertakes  the  general  physio- 
logical examination  which  the  certificate  itself  requires.  In 
the  same  building  are  installed  workshops,  adapted  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  ordinary  trades  and  crafts  of  the  region.  These 
will  necessarily  be  of  many  kinds,  in  order  to  attract  as  many 
pupils  to  the  school  as  possible.  The  following  trades  in 
particular  will  be  taught : 

Orthopaedy ;  mechanical  engineering  (fitting,  tool-cutting) ; 
industrial  design  ;  photography  (retouching,  enlarging,  and 
printing) ;  shoe-making  ;  harness-making  ;  saddlery  ;  elec- 
trical fitting ;  tinsmiths'  work  and  the  lesser  mechanical 
crafts ;  typewriting ;  the  management  of  agricultural 
machinery  and  small  motors ;  toy-making  in  wood ;  the 
making  of  hands  and  feet  for  artificial  limbs  ;  carpentry. 

In  some  centres  (Jura,  Vienne,  and  Haut-Vienne)  the  prac- 
tice of  the  lapidary  art  and  ceramics  will  be  developed,  which 
might  yield  France  a  considerable  advantage  over  other 
countries.  If  the  numbers  of  those  who  have  lost  a  lower 
limb  is  large,  and  a  change  of  trade  becomes  necessary,  tailors 
and  weavers  will  be  trained.  But  in  general  we  must  avoid 
keeping  at  the  school  those  war-cripples  who  are  able  to  resume 
their  old  trades. 

The  direction  of  the  school  is  entrusted  to  a  competent 
physician,  assisted  by  an  experienced  engineer.  Both  must 


342          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

be  tactful,  and  capable  of  judgement  and  reflection.  Their 
physiological  knowledge  will  be  in  request  every  moment. 

The  physician  is  responsible  for  functional  re-education,, 
prothesis,  and  orthopaedy,  and  observations  relating  to  the 
psycho-physiological  qualifications  of  the  wounded  soldiers. 
It  is  impossible  to  divide  these  different  services,  to  which  the 
assistants  and  instructors  are  appointed.  The  victims  of 
amputation  work  at  repairing  or  transforming  prothetic 
appliances,  and  installing  workshops.  But  work  of  this  sort 
should  not  be  specialised,  or  serious  disappointments  may 
occur. 

The  engineer,  for  his  part,  assisted  by  a  few  good  professors 
of  the  manual  crafts,  or  by  foremen,  has  to  supervise  the  general 
and  technical  instruction  of  the  men,  and  divide  them  into 
professional  categories.  He  keeps  a  watch  upon  the  move- 
ments of  his  patients  and  the  good  condition  of  their  artificial 
limbs,  and  he  explains  the  best  mode  of  employing  them.  I 
have  always  remarked  that  the  victim  of  amputation  very 
quickly  completes  his  sensitive  education,  and  shows,  in  the 
handling  of  his  tools,  a  dexterity  wThich  amazes  his  instructors. 
He  is  for  them  the  occasion  of  many  living  object-lessons,  for 
experience,  in  this  connection,  is  the  only  guide. 

The  teaching  is  not  confined  to  workshop  practice  ;  theoret- 
ical courses  are  provided ;  complementary  instruction  in. 
science  and  literature  increases  the  average  level  of  intelligence, 
and  enables  the  brain  to  co-operate  with  the  arms,  when  the 
latter  are  uncertain. 

CLIII. — (6)  PROFESSIONAL  ORIENTATION. — In  our  days,  when 
man  has  ceased  to  be  an  active  part  of  the  mechanism  ot 
the  wonderful  machine-tools  of  industry,  to  become  a  mere 
agent  of  starting  and  stopping,  in  whom  automatism  has 
reduced  to  a  minimum  the  graduated  and  voluntary  activity 
of  the  muscles,  we  must  train  the  greater  number  of  our  war- 
cripples  for  economical  trades,  which  are  not  fatiguing,  and 
are  often  remunerative.  I  imagine  that  if  small  motors  of 
2  to  5  h.p.  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  our  farmers  they  would 
live  more  prosperous  lives,  and  would  render  more  fertile- 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  343 

and  productive  the  soil  which  has  been  so  unhappily 
neglected. 

An  examination  of  agricultural  implements,  with  a  view  to 
their  adaptation  to  the  use  of  war-cripples,  has  become  a 
necessary  undertaking,  but  has  not  sufficiently  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  State.  When  he  first  enters  the  school  the 
farmer  invariably  informs  me,  if  he  has  lost  an  arm,  that  he 
can  no  longer  perform  any  agricultural  operation,  unless  to 
give  food  to  the  live-stock.  But  when  he  has  been  re-educated,, 
when  he  is  equipped  with  the  worker's  arm,  with  the  universal 
holder  and  ring,  he  accustoms  himself,  first  of  all,  to  the  use  of 
the  dynamographic  shovel :  then  he  employs,  turn  by  turn,  the 
ordinary  spade  and  shovel,  leaning  on  them  and  pressing  them 
into  the  soil  as  they  should  be  pressed  ;  then  he  strikes  and 
pulls  with  the  mattock,  or  presses  and  pulls  the  hoe  or  rake. 
In  a  few  days  after  his  return  to  the  country  the  farmer  writes 
to  tell  me  that  he  is  performing  all  his  agricultural  tasks 
without  assistance  from  any  one. 

In  certain  parts  of  Central  France — in  Lozere,  Correze, 
Cantal,  or  again  in  the  Vosg$s — the  peasant  might  devote  the 
slack  season — the  winter — to  making  wooden  toys  :  a  craft 
in  which  his  ingenuity,  his  habit  of  making  something  of 
everything,  and  of  doing  everything  with  his  own  hands,  would 
find  useful  scope.  This  toy-making  industry  used  to  be 
localised  in  Germany,  in  Nuremberg  and  Fiirth.  Already  the 
Italians  of  the  North  and  the  Swiss  have  reacted  against  this 
monopoly.  We,  too,  who  possess  the  wood — usually  beech — 
and  the  most  skilful  labour,  ought  to  follow  this  example, 
which  costs  so  little  in  the  matter  of  initial  outlay  :  a  knife, 
a  saw,  sometimes  a  small  lathe,  and  a  hammer. 

Even  in  navvy's  work,  road-making,  etc.,  there  is  room  for 
one-armed  men.  I  had  several  yards  of  a  path  paved  by  such 
a  worker,  who  employed  a  pneumatic  paving-beetle,  known  as 
a  demoiselle.  It  appears  that  this  sort  of  work  suits  the  one- 
armed  man  far  better  than  it  does  the  one-legged  man,  although 
the  reverse  is  true  of  the  removal  of  soil.  Two-wheeled  barrows, 
which  are  easy  to  guide,  are  obviously  indicated  for  work  of 
this  kind. 


344 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 


IiTall  the  trades  or  crafts  hitherto  mentioned  the  knowledge 
of  the  movements  and  the  efforts  required  of  the  worker  pre- 
supposes a  knowledge  of  the  use  of  tools.  This  is  a  very  im- 
portant point.  Of  course,  the  director  of  the  workshops 


FIG.   130. — One-armed  Mechanic  making  a  Forging. 


cannot  contrive  to  be  omniscient,  but  his  general  education 
and  his  experience  should  prevent  him  from  making  mistakes, 
or  leaving  to  his  assistants  the  task  of  selecting  the  trade  or 
craft  to  be  followed  by  the  war-cripple.  Otherwise  it  would  be 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES 


345 


better  to  induce  him  to  relinquish  his  position.  He  must 
realise  that  the  one-armed  man  is  in  a  position  to  adopt  the 
calling  of  a  mechanician  ;  he  can  file,  use  and  set  a  saw,  handle 
the  shears  and  the  chisel,  grind  and  set  tools,  drill  holes  with 
the  centre-bit  and  brace,  and  employ  the  tap  and  screw-plate 
•or  dies.  The  sound  arm  will  wield  the  hammer  (Fig.  130). 


FIG.  131. — Wounded  Soldier  working  the  Jointing-plane. 

Only  the  lathe  will  present  any  real  difficulty.  But  this  depends 
on  the  kind  of  lathe  ;  some  can  be  controlled  without  much 
difficulty  (the  capstan  lathe,  for  example). 

The  war-cripple  can  also  become  a  wood-worker ;  he  can 
saw,  plane,  assemble  and  glue  parts,  drill,  mortice,  etc. 
(Figs.  131,  132). 

To-day  the  intelligence  of  the  worker  is  an  important  factor, 
which  is  seconded  by  the  full  force  of  technical  experience. 
This  enables  us  to  destine  a  fairly  large  number  of  war-cripples 


346         THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

to  work  with  machine-tools,  which  will  in  future  be  employed 
by  the  industrial  world  even  more  widely  than  at  present. 
The  mental  vivacity  which  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
French  people  will  greatly  contribute  to  this  professional 
adaptation. 


FIG.  132. — One-armed  Worker  cutting  Wood  by  means  of 
a  Rip-saw. 


If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  bring  to  these  questions  that  deter- 
mination to  realise  the  facts  which  is  incumbent  upon  us,  we 
perceive  that  only  an  exasperating  prejudice  has  prevented 
the  majority  of  crippled  workers  from  obtaining  employment, 
and  that  it  has  affected  soldiers  more  than  civilians.  It  is- 
truly  to  offer  an  insult  to  glory  to  exclude  it  from  our  work- 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  347 

shops,  humming  with  industry,  or  from  the  plains  springing 
into  life  behind  the  ploughshare. 

The  object  of  professional  orientation  is  to  react  against 
social  prejudices  by  placing  the  wounded  soldier  in  the  position 
for  which  he  is  fitted,  in  order  to  realise  his  full  economic 
output. 

CLIV. — (c)  THE  TIME  REQUIRED  FOR  RE-EDUCATION. — HOME. 
OR  COTTAGE  INDUSTRIES. — But  the  technical  department  of  the 
school  will  be  consulted  by  the  pupils  for  all  sorts  of  reasons  : 
some  wishing  to  undergo  a  course  of  physiological  training, 
which  seems  full  of  promise  ;  others  seeking  some  improvement 
of  their  prothetic  appliances,  or  to  their  more  careful  adjust- 
ment, or  simply — and  I  have  had  thousands  of  such  before 
me — a  circumstantial  examination  of  their  capacities,  in  order 
that  they  may  obtain  their  certificate  of  qualification  ;  this 
they  will  send  to  manufacturers  inclined  to  employ  them,  or 
they  will  profit  by  it  directly  by  setting  up  on  their  own  account. 
For  my  part,  I  hope  to  see  this  effort  to  revive  the  life  of  the 
complete  workman,  the  home-worker,  encouraged.  In  this 
there  would  be  nothing  inconsistent  with  the  tendency  toward 
industrial  centralisation,  as  the  large  workshops  would,  with- 
out loss  to  themselves,  become  accustomed  to  leave  the  smaller 
crafts  and  petty  commissions  to  this  class  of  worker,  a  class 
capable  of  great  ingenuity  and  inventive  power.  The  State 
also  would  benefit  by  this  condition  of  affairs,  provided  the 
home-workers  did  not  fail  to  turn  out  good  apprentices. 

As  for  the  workshops  which  are  established  for  purposes 
of  re-education,  their  object  is  perfectly  well  defined  :  to- 
perfect  the  technique  of  the  handicrafts,  and  to  adapt  the 
wounded  soldier  to  selected  professional  exercises,  accordingly 
as  he  is  obliged  to  change  his  calling  or  to  specialise  in  that 
one  of  the  departments  of  his  craft  which  is  best  calculated 
to  husband  his  energies  without  diminishing  their  output. 

The  time  required  for  this  re-education  varies.  Although 
as  far  as  manual  labour  is  concerned  a  year  constitutes  a 
sufficient  average,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  theoretical 
education  will  require  a  longer  time  ;  and  it  will  be  of  a 


348          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

complete  nature,  so  that  it  may  form  a  working  class  Mite 
which  will  itself  be  qualified  to  teach. 

The  principle  of  the  school  will  be  that  of  the  boarding- 
school,  the  men  receiving  board  and  lodging,  while  their  wages 
will  be  reckoned  according  to  a  scale  which  may  vary  according 
to  locality,  remembering  that  the  loss  of  output  in  the  majority 
of  cases  of  amputation  of  the  lower  leg  or  thigh  is  practically 
nil 

Under  exceptional  circumstances  it  may  be  useful  to  adapt 
the  system  of  the  day  school  in  the  case  of  married  cripples, 
so  that  they  may  return  to  their  own  homes  every  evening. 
Thus  the  schools  established  for  the  purpose  of  re-education 
distribute  the  benefits  of  instruction  in  pursuance  of  a  definite 
aim  ;  they  develop  the  minds  of  the  workers,  and  complete 
their  technical  training.  They  determine,  being  familiar 
with  the  facts  of  the  case,  the  industrial  or  commercial 
destination  of  the  wounded  soldier,  preparing  him  securely 
to  find  employment  and  to  take  his  place  in  the  ranks  of 
society. 

CLV.  Finding  Employment. — For  everything  must  con- 
verge upon  the  real  object,  which  is  to  find  employment  for 
the  wounded  soldier.  The  mutilated  workmen  who  are  helped 
to  set  up  for  themselves,  the  young  men  who  ought  to  enter 
the  liberal  professions,  and  whose  efforts  should  be  encouraged 
by  subventions  or  by  gratuitous  training — these  are  examples 
of  the  men  for  whom  we  are  finding  employment.  One  may 
also  count  upon  individual  initiative.  This  or  that  employer 
or  factory-manager  will  apply  to  you  for  one  or  several  wounded 
soldiers.  I,  personally,  have  received  many  applications  of 
this  kind,  to  which  I  have  responded  by  sending  to  the  applicant 
the  required  number  of  war-cripples,  who  have  undergone 
their  course  of  re-education  and  received  their  certificates. 
These  certificates  constitute  an  element  of  great  value,  because 
the  employer  finds  in  them  information  which  is  intelligible, 
exact,  and  honest.  Between  him  and  his  employee  a  solid 
confidence  is  established,  the  foundation  of  which  is  the 
truth. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  349 

A  number  of  charitable  societies  have  undertaken,  during 
the  war,  to  collect  and  centralise  offers  to  employ  war-cripples, 
and  to  elicit  others  by  advertisements  in  the  Press,  or  through 
the  personal  influence  and  connections  of  their  directors. 
Beyond  a  doubt  some  of  these  societies  have  in  this  direction 
furnished  a  generous  contribution  of  patriotic  zeal.  But  to 
all  attempts  of  this  kind  the  more  substantial  influence  of  the 
syndical  chambers  is  to  be  preferred  (Trade  Union  Councils). 
I  am  strongly  of  opinion  that  the  Trade  Unions  should  be 
invited  to  collaborate  in  the  work  of  placing  our  wounded 
and  mutilated  soldiers.  The  great  factories  are  in  a  position 
to  employ  many  thousands  of  them,  provided  they  practise 
the  division  of  labour,  and  lay  down  machinery  which  is 
easily  controlled.  The  Ministries  of  Munitions  in  France 
and  England,  some  of  whose  works  employ  from  5,000  to  10,000 
hands,  ought  to  have  adopted  this  course  long  ago,  and 
might  have  done  so  without  diminishing  the  level  of  production. 

They  possess  means  of  action  superior  to  those  of  other 
Ministries.1 

Certain  great  industries,  especially  the  metallurgical,  have 
begun  to  make  such  attempts,  of  their  own  proper  motion, 
yielding  to  the  spirit  of  solidarity  which  the  intelligent  em- 
ployer feels  in  respect  of  his  wounded  workers.  I  trust  that 
this  example  will  rapidly  become  contagious. 

Commerce  also  offers  outlets  :  the  wounded  soldier  may 
find  employment  as  house-surveyor,  newspaper  canvasser, 
newsagent,  or  newsvendor.  Young  men  who,  for  lack  of 
apprenticeship  to  a  trade,  would  adopt  the  calling  of  news- 
vendor,  should  be  taught  other  trades,  in  which  their  arms  or 
legs  would  be  necessary.  Book-keeping  will  absorb  a  certain 

1  After  twenty-one  months  of  war  I  read  in  the  newspaper  that  the  Under- 
secretary of  State  for  Munitions  had  "  invited  the  heads  of  industries  to  arrange 
for  the  employment  of  war-cripples  in  all  cases  where  it  is  possible  to  utilise 
them;  as  watchmen,  inspectors,  clerks,  etc."  (Le  Journal,  27  April,  1916.) 
A  more  recent  "  invitation  "  "  to  ascertain  the  kinds  of  work  on  which  the 
interested  party  (wounded  or  crippled  soldier)  can  be  employed  without  incon- 
venience "  (ibid.,  22  June,  1916),  obviously  constituted  a  perceptible  step 
forward.  Since  then  the  Ministry  has  brought  about  the  extensive  employment 
of  such  workers. 


350          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

number  of  wounded  soldiers,  above  all  those  who  are  suffering 
from  radial  paralysis,  and  those  who  have  lost  a  leg.  Banks, 
business  houses,  etc.,  will  employ  them  as  typists,  copying 
clerks,  accountants,  etc. 

The  essential  thing  is  to  prepare  the  wounded  soldier  for 
his  calling,  so  that  he  may  practise  it  effectively  ;  then  his 
position  will  be  secure,  and  he  will  escape  the  hazards  of 
charitable  employment 

At  the  present  moment  the  French  Ministry  of  Labour  is 
making  an  effort,  thanks  to  a  Central  Office  (decrees  of  March, 
1916),  to  co-ordinate  the  scattered  training  establishments  and 
employment  agencies,  and  to  repair,  if  possible,  the  mistakes 
which  have  been  committed. 

CLVI.  An  Institute  for  the  Organisation  of  Labour. — It 

will  be  seen  that  a  complete  preliminary  study  of  the  problem 
was  necessary  before  it  was  possible  to  obtain  a  thorough 
grasp  of  the  methods  of  re-education.  It  was  also  necessary 
to  examine  all  the  modes  of  its  application,  and  to  act  with 
decision  and  promptitude,  in  collaboration  with  qualified 
persons,  grouped  under  a  vigilant  director.  Lastly,  it  was 
indispensable  to  possess  a  central  organism,  comprising  all  the 
mechanism  of  control  and  co-ordination.  The  school  to  be 
installed  in  Paris  might,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Institute 
for  the  Organisation  of  Labour,"  become  the  organisation  in 
question  :  it  might  serve  as  a  centre  of  advanced  instruction 
in  the  disregarded  science  of  labour  and  apprenticeship, 
and  as  a  connecting  link  between  the  competent  departments 
of  the  several  Ministries,  and  might  introduce  a  little  order 
into  a  condition  of  affairs  which  is  of  necessity  confused. 

Let  us,  in  fact,  consider  the  diversity  of  the  departments 
which  occupy  themselves  with  the  lot  of  the  wounded  soldier. 
In  France  the  Service  de  Sante  (Army  Medical  Service)  is 
responsible  for  matters  of  prothesis  and  psychotherapy,  for 
the  discharge  of  soldiers  from  the  army,  and  for  the  award  of 
pensions.  General  and  technical  instruction,  apprenticeship, 
and  all  the  legislation  which  surrounds  them,  together  with 
the  award  of  pensions  other  than  military,  unemployment, 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  351 

and  industrial  accidents  are  the  province  of  the  Ministries  of 
Labour,  Commerce,  Public  Instruction,  and  Agriculture.  The 
whole  Government  is  therefore  engaged  in  this  social  task,  but 
it  is  advisable  that  a  single  mechanism  should  undertake  it. 

Such  seems  to  be  the  mature  decision  of  Parliament,  since 
it  has  entrusted  the  Ministry  of  Labour  with  the  duty  of  organ- 
ising professional  re-education  in  France.  Thus  a  formidable 
waste  of  time  and  money  will  be  avoided  ;  and  unemployment 
will  be  prevented.  It  should  indeed  be  inexcusable  in  countries 
in  which  the  entire  energy  of  the  nation  is  required.  I  believe 
the  scientific  method  of  re-education  will  produce,  in  both 
employers  and  workers,  an  improved  industrial  discipline, 
and  a  higher  moral  and  intellectual  standard.  As  soon  as  the 
schools  are  in  full  working  order,  and  employment  secure, 
two  years  will  not  elapse  before  all  our  re-educated  wounded 
soldiers  will  be  in  a  position  to  gain  their  livelihood,  without 
owing  anything  to  any  one.  Our  workers,  artisans  and 
peasants  alike,  are  counting  on  this  ;  they  are  awaiting  the 
action  of  the  State  with  an  impatience  whose  rapid  contagion 
I  have  often  regretted.  No  one  must  betray  the  hopes  which 
have  shone  into  their  hearts.  It  is  the  time  for  decisive 
action,  for  a  great  obligation  of  solidarity  is  at  issue,  of  which 
the  likeness  is  not  to  be  found  in  human  history. 

CLVII.     Relief    Work.— The    Seriously    Wounded.— The 

physiological  organisation  of  labour  has  an  immensely  wide 
bearing,  since  it  embraces  physical  education  and  apprentice- 
ship, social  hygiene,  and  professional  re-education. 

In  the  special  class  of  wounded  soldiers  we  have  seen  that  it 
enables  the  very  great  majority  of  infirm,  weakly,  and  invalid 
subjects  to  return  to  normal  life,  and  about  80  per  cent, 
of  the  mutilated  soldiers,  of  whom  there  are  in  Europe  more 
than  2,500,000. x 

But  the  others,  the  seriously  wounded;  those  who  have 
had  to  suffer  a  double  amputation,  and  those  who  are  totally 

1  There  are  nearly  80,000  in  France,  as  against  2,781  after  the  war  of  1870-1. 
The  belligerent  countries  number,  on  an  average,  one  wounded  soldier  per  30 
inhabitants. 


352          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

invalid,  and,  lastly,  the  blind  ?  What  can  the  scientific 
method  of  re-education  do  for  these  unfortunates  ?  Some 
possess  a  degree  of  functional  capacity  so  small  that  it  cannot 
be  used  ;  some  are  only  in  slightly  better  case.  Others 
— even  when  their  limbs  are  intact — have  lost  the  most 
important  of  the  functions  of  relation  :  their  sight.  For  them 
the  outer  world  has  become  a  place  full  of  ambushes;  a 
heavy  darkness  has  descended  upon  the  horizon  which  met 
their  eyes  of  old,  and  which,  to  them,  was  familiar. 

All  these  facts  I  reserved  for  the  present  chapter,  since 
they  did  not  immediately  enter  into  my  programme,  and 
because  the  normal  social  output  alone  preoccupied  me.  I 
should  like,  however,  to  venture  on  a  brief  survey  of  the 
problem  of  charitable  employment  or  relief  work  upon  which 
the  seriously  wounded  and  the  blind  are  dependent.  I  do 
not  intend  to  attempt  more  than  a  mere  contribution  to  the 
subject. 

The  equipment  with  prothetic  appliances  of  those  who  have 
lost  two  or  more  limbs  is  a  delicate  matter,  which  demands 
the  fullest  attention.  The  remedy  is  a  perfected  prothesis, 
adapted  as  carefully  as  possible ;  a  prothesis  utilitarian 
rather  than  aesthetic.  The  lower  limbs  require  less  care. 
The  patient,  with  two  good  "  pestles,"  can  enter  some  seden- 
tary occupation  ;  walking  is  comparatively  easy,  but  the 
man  must  be  his  own  master  ;  he  must  be  master,  too,  of 
his  time,  and  able  to  study  his  own  convenience. 

The  literally  legless  man,  when  he  is  poor,  can  only  have 
recourse  to  benevolent  assistance  ;  it  is  his  right.  Special 
workshops  would  permit  of  the  utilisation  of  this  category  of 
worker,  whose  output  is  often  fairly  high.  The  category  of 
those  who  have  lost  both  arms  or  hands  is  more  interesting, 
if  we  may  say  so  ;  for  scientific  re-education  benefits  it  very 
greatly,  both  by  exercising  and  training  the  sensitiveness  of 
the  stumps,  and  by  adapting  them  to  the  execution  of  dexterous 
movements.  Never  has  this  physiological  training  appeared 
more  fruitfully  beneficial  than  in  the  case  of  the  blind. 

The  appliances  of  the  Cauet  type  are  those  which  best 
satisfy  the  needs  of  those  who  have  suffered  amputation  of 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  353 

both  the  upper  limbs,  who,  if  they  are  intelligent,  can  resume 


FIG.  133. — Accountant,  seated  at  a  Cafe  Table.     Both  his  Fore-arms 
have  been  amputated. 

their   old   occupations   with   appreciable   results   (Fig.    133). 
But  more  is  needed  for  the  blind. 


354          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

CLVIII.  The  Physiological  Education  of  the  Blind.— The 

better  to  define  the  principles  here  involved,  I  will  take  the 
example  of  a  blind  soldier  who  had  suffered  amputation  of  the 
left  upper  arm  and  the  right  fore-arm. 

G.  S.,  aged  41  years,  married,  and  the  father  of  two  children, 
was  a  dealer  in  forced  fruits  and  vegetables.  In  his  calling  the 
senses  play  an  essential  part.  The  man  was  utterly  dejected 
as  a  result  of  his  mutilations.  I  took  him,  barely  cicatrised, 
from  the  hospital  in  which  he  was  stifling  his  mental  anguish, 
and  I  busied  myself  at  first  with  the  sensibility  of  the  stumps. 

Here  is  the  method  employed  : 

For  a  week  the  sensibility  is  trained  by  means  of  the  weighted 
bracelet  (§  112). 

This  training  is  completed  by  exercises  with  the  brachial 
splint,  and  controlled  by  the  spike  aesthesiometer  and  the 
pressure  dynamometer.  Finally  the  aesthesiographic  table  is 
employed  (Fig.  134).  This  consists  of  a  rectangular  plate  of 
brass,  P,  with  a  flue,  F,  which  is  placed  over  a  small  lamp, 
bringing  the  whole  up  to  a  temperature  of  about  86°  Fahr. 
In  the  centre  of  the  plane  surface  appears  a  blunt  point  of 
ivory,  I,  which  by  means  of  a  micrometer  screw,  M,  can  be 
gradually  made  to  protrude.  The  extent  of  this  protrusion 
is,  of  course,  known.  At  its  base  it  presses  on  a  Marey  drum, 
with  an  internal  spring,  and  tre  pressure  can  be  registered  as 
usual.  Under  these  conditions  the  patient  is  allowed  to  explore 
the  surface  of  the  plate  or  table,  the  point  being  at  zero. 
He  moves  his  stump  over  it  in  all  directions  ;  and  little  by 
little  the  micrometer  screw  is  turned.  When  the  patient 
manages  to  detect  the  ivory  point,  the  height  of  the  projec- 
tion of  the  point  is  read,  and  the  pressure  which  the  stump 
has  exerted  in  order  to  feel  it  is  registered. 

From  day  to  day  the  results  improve.  The  patient  is  now 
provided  with  mechanical  arms  of  Cauet's  type,  and  the  sensory 
re-education  is  recommenced,  but  is  now  combined  with  the 
adaptation  of  the  movements.  G.  S.  has  succeeded  in  making 
himself  useful  in  his  old  occupation  ;  he  no  longer  feels  iso- 
lated ;  he  is  re-entering  into  possession  of  the  active  life  which 
at  one  time  he  thought  he  had  left  for  ever.  We  live  by  our 


THE    RE-EDUCATIOX    OF    WAR-CRIPPLES  3jO 

senses,  a  little  of  necessity  and  a  great  deal  by  habit.  The 
blind  man  has  to  lose  the  habit,  and  content  himself  with 
the  necessity. 

CLIX.  The  Work  of  the  Blind.— The  loss  of  sight  is  more 
grievous  to  some  than  to  others.  The  man  congenitally 
blind  has  no  conception  of  his  loss  ;  the  man  blinded  by 
accident,  on  the  other  hand,  attaches  to  it  an  importance 


134. — Employment  of  the  Aesthesiographic  Table  in  the  Case  of  a 
blind  Cripple. 


which  depends  on  the  sum  of  the  delights  of  which  it  deprives 
him.  The  simple-minded  man  suffers,  in  this  respect,  less 
than  the  cultivated  man.  But  one  must  continually  appeal 
to  the  moral  of  the  blind,  and  employ  the  finest  tact  in  dealing 
with  them. 

The  best  means  of  fortifying  their  moral  is  to  find  work  for 
them,  and  preferably  to  re-adapt  them  to  their  old  trades. 

Work  manifests  the  action  of  man  upon  the  external  world, 
and  draws  him  away  from  the  anxieties,  the  griefs,  and  the 


356          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

discouragement  which  have  from  all  time  been  the  lot  of  the 
blind  : 

0  Sminthee  Apollon,  je  perirai  sans  doute 
Si  tu  ne  sers  de  guide  a  cet  aveugle  errant ! 

"  O  Smintheus  Apollo,  I  shall  surely  die  if  thou  dost  not  serve  as  guide  to  this 
wandering  blind  man  !  " 

But  the  god  of  shepherds  is  assuredly  less  useful  than  a  poodle 
to  guide  the  blind  farmer  across  the  fields.  For  it  seems  to 
me  necessary  to  adapt  the  latter  to  the  work  of  the  soil  and  the 
tasks  of  the  farmyard.  He  has,  in  short,  the  necessary 
experience  ;  he  is  familiar  with  aspect  and  the  use  of  agricul- 
tural implements.  Well-trained  as  regards  his  tactile  sensi- 
bility, and,  at  need,  assisted  by  a  boy,  he  can  resume  the 
laborious  life  of  the  peasant.  For  the  peasant  farmers  form 
the  majority  of  those  engaged  in  agriculture. 

Such  is  the  case  of  L ,  among  others  ;  a  small  farmer 

smitten  with  blindness  in  the  war,  who,  further,  lost  the  four 
fingers  of  his  right  hand,  the  thumb  having  retained  a  certain 
though  insufficient  mobility.  The  artificial  hand  with  which 
I  equipped  him  enables  him  to  make  use  of  the  universal  ring 
or  pliers,  or  even  of  the  parade  hand.  His  movements  are 
being  controlled  and  corrected,  thanks  to  the  dynamographic 
shovel,  and  his  efforts  evaluated,  with  a  view  to  the  possibility 
of  the  necessary  exertions.  There  are  in  general  no  practical 
difficulties  in  enabling  the  blind  farmer  to  resume  his  old 
occupations,  except,  indeed,  that  it  is  important  to  make  it 
easier  for  him  to  do  so.  If  he  has  no  kinsfolk  who  can  employ 
him,  some  benevolent  society  must  place  him  in  surroundings 
which  are  familiar  to  him. 

In  general  the  process  of  re-adaptation  to  work  should  be 
the  object  of  benevolent  assistance,  for  it  economises  the  whole 
business  of  getting  to  work  again,  and  of  apprenticeship. 
I  have  always,  for  example,  recommended  that  blind  men 
who  belong  to  the  category  of  mechanicians,  tinsmiths,  lock- 
smiths, etc.,  should  be  re-educated  as  fitters,  and  in  the  per- 
formance of  heavy  mechanical  work.  The  Reuilly  establish- 
ment has  completely  realised  the  force  of  my  contention. 


THE    RE-EDUCATION    OF   WAR-CRIPPLES  357 

These  men  work  by  the  task  and  are  paid  by  the  piece, 
neither  more  nor  less  than  the  normal  workers  in  the  factory. 
Here  is  a  profession  in  which  our  great  manufacturers  can 
encourage  the  pious  work  of  assisting  the  blind. 

The  trades  in  which  re-adaptation  and  even  re-apprentice- 
ship are  easy  may  be  classified  as  follows,  in  the  order  of 
useful  output  :  agriculture  ;  coarse  mechanical  work  ;  book- 
binding ;  brush-making ;  mending  and  re-seating  chairs ; 
basket-making  ;  packing  (closing  boxes  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables) ;  cooperage  ;  making  wooden  shoes  ;  making  small 
baskets  of  raphia ;  massage ;  piano-tuning ;  telephoning 
(for  customers). 

It  is  in  all  cases  advantageous  to  train  and  exercise  the 
sensibility  by  contact  with  the  surfaces  and  the  contours  of 
tools  and  shaped  articles  ;  for  example,  by  utilising  a  cube 
of  brass  with  rounded  corners,  the  radius  of  the  various  rounded 
surfaces  being  unequal,  and  getting  the  blind  man  to  recognise 
and  estimate  the  differences.  The  chair-mender  will  pass 
his  fingers  over  the  straw,  rushes,  or  cane  of  the  chair-bottom, 
counting  the  rows  and  inequalities  of  the  prepared  surface ; 
and  so  with  other  kinds  of  work. 

I  have  caused  little  tablecloths  to  be  made  of  silk  or  cotton 
twist,  for  tea-tables.  Sweaters,  mufflers,  etc.,  can  be  made 
in  the  same  sort  of  work.  It  is  very  easy  to  learn  and  very 
remunerative. 

These  brief  explanations  will  enable  the  reader  to  realise 
how  much  thought  might  be  given  to  the  subject  of  relief  by 
means  of  work,  a  species  of  relief  which  affects  so  many 
unfortunates,  and  which  snatches  them  from  a  cruel  fate, 
while  it  extends  the  scientific  work  of  organising  human 
activity  to  ground  which  we  shall  never  tread  without  a 
profound  emotion  and  a  pious  respect. 

CLX.  General  Conclusion. — Through  the  innumerable 
forms  of  our  activity,  in  the  exertions  of  the  body  as  well 
as  in  those  of  the  mind,  a  single  principle  appears  :  the 
principle  of  order  and  harmony.  All  Nature  obeys  it :  the 
ray  of  light,  as  it  is  refracted  or  reflected,  follows  the  shortest 


358          THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ORGANISATION 

path  ;  the  stone  which  falls  or  is  thrown  from  the  hand 
describes  a  minimum  trajectory  ;  the  instinctive  movement 
is  also  the  most  rapid.  And  man  has  never  reflected  that 
his  voluntary  actions  squander  time  and  energy  and  riches 
which  would  benefit  society !  For  he  needed  self-control 
and  a  rigorous  science  to  avoid  useless  waste,  and  to  keep 
himself  on  the  sloping  path  of  routine.  A  demonstrative 
experience  was  necessary  to  make  him  understand  that 
economy,  while  husbanding  the  expenditure  of  our  energies, 
increases  their  utilisation,  and  that  this  expenditure  should  be 
rational  and  methodical  in  every  sphere  which  is  open  to  our 
activities. 

For  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  capital  of  our  physical 
and  psychical  energies  is  inexhaustible.  It  represents  a 
sum,  a  total,  of  which  we  do  not  know  the  exact  figure,  but 
it  cannot  be  far  from  the  equivalent  of  150,000  horse-power 
hours  for  the  normal  duration  of  life,  with  a  useful  effect  of 
about  10  per  cent. 

This  would  be  a  very  small  mechanical  output  in  comparison 
with  that  of  inanimate  motors,  if  we  had  not  to  consider  the 
intelligence  of  labour  and  its  infinite  variety,  if  it  were  not  for 
the  existence  of  thought,  which  nothing  hitherto  has  been 
able  to  parallel. 

The  athlete  is  mistaken  when  he  crazily  dissipates  his 
strength.  The  working-man  is  making  a  miscalculation  when 
he  refuses  to  improve  the  condition  of  his  work  by  a  more 
skilful  technique,  an  improved  equipment,  and  a  judicious 
employment  of  his  working  day.  The  employer  is  mistaken 
when  he  rejects  the  employment  of  wounded  or  mutilated 
soldiers,  a  considerable  reinforcement  of  the  normal  workers, 
and  an  important  source  of  profit ;  and  in  general  we  miscon- 
ceive the  profound  and  veritable  laws  of  social  organisation 
if  we  fail  to  put  each  man  in  the  place  which  should  properly 
be  his  if  he  is  to  yield  his  full  output.  The  day  has  come  for 
a  conception  of  this  organisation  which  is  at  once  scientific 
and  humane,  and  a  source  of  concord  and  well-being. 

THE    END 


INDEX 


Acceleration,  nervous,  51. 

Accidents,  industrial :  precautions  against,  194  ;  expert  investigation 
of,  313. 

Accidents,  industrial,  victims  of ;  organic  examination  of,  116 ; 
functional  incapacity  of,  133  ;  re-education  of,  229. 

Acclimatisation,  203  ;   its  duration,  210  ;  its  development,  223. 

Acid,  carbonic  :  present  in  the  blood,  22  ;  dyspnoea  caused  by,  25  ; 
its  elimination,  25  ;  breathlessness  due  to,  87. 

Acid,  uric  :    elimination  of,  96. 

Activity,  intellectual,  41,  161,  et  seq. 

physical,  48,  127  ;   its  duration,  41  ;   its  laws,  166. 
psychical :    its  evolution,  41  ;   its  seat,  52. 

Adaptation,  functional,  34  ;  of  the  body,  46  ;  of  implements  employed 

by  disabled  workers,  323. 
Addison,   Joseph,  112. 

Aesthesiometer,  94,  170,  248,  354. 

Age,  and  intelligence,  38,  41  ;  and  physical  energies,  40  ;  the  critical, 
41.  Effects  of,  40,  41,  53,  111-12,  141-2.  Age  and  apprentice- 
ship, 184  ;  see  Senility. 

Agricultural  labour,  137  ;   utility,  192  ;   organization,  208,  342-3. 

Agriculture,  mechanical,  137. 

Air,  atmospheric  :  composition  of,  23,  75  ;  contaminated,  25  ;  com- 
pressed, 120. 

Albuminoids,  organic,  95  ;  in  foodstuffs,  103,  104  ;  minimum  of,  103, 
104,  106  ;  abstention  from,  106. 

Alcohol  ;  action  of  upon  the  alimentary  canal,  23,  114  ;  and  on  the 
whole  organism,  114,  et  seq.  ;  hereditary  effects  of,  40,  115  ;  as  a 
drink,  113-114  ;  alcohol  and  athletics,  137  ;  alcohol  and  colonisa- 
tion, 209. 

Alcoholism  :  effects  of,  113-116  ;  campaign  against,  113-114,  225  ; 
among  the  Arabs,  222. 

Alimentation  :  effects  of,  5  ;  moderation  in,  45,  141  ;  bad  or  insuffi- 
cient, 104  ;  economical,  106  ;  of  labour,  108,  143  ;  of  the  Arabs, 
220,  et  seq.  ;  see  Food. 

Altitude,  effects  of,  120. 

Amar's  Law,  or  Law  of  Repose,  101 ;  Amar's  worker's  arm,  286,  et  seq. 
Amontons,  3,  10. 

Amplitude  of  movements,  145;  measurement  of,  156;  power  of,  245. 

Amputation,  general  effects  of,  242-3,  246,  et  seq.  ;  of  the  thigh,  246, 
265  ;  of  the  lower  leg,  246,  272,  282  ;  tibio-tarsal,  274  ;  Chopart's, 
284  ;  double,  284  ;  of  the  upper  arm,  284,  286,  332  ;  of  the 
fore-arm,  293,  332. 

359 


360  INDEX 

Amputation,  victims  of  :  functional  re-education  of,  143, 146, 149, 196  ; 

definition  of  same,  227  ;  one-armed,  231,  303  ;  the  common  illusion 

of,  250  ;   the  organic  condition  of,  252,  et  seq.  ;  victims  of  double 

amputation,  252,  326,  352  ;    the  gait  of  a  one-legged  man,  260, 

275  ;    training  of  men  whose  arms  are  amputated,  318  ;    their 

labour,  324,  326,  331,  et  seq. 
Analysis  of  forces,  67-8,  312  ;  of  movements,  70, 180  ;  of  gases  expired, 

73. 

Annamites,  as  workers,  203  ;    their  qualities,  226. 
Appliances,  prothetic,  146  ;  description  of,  257,  etseq.  ;  theory  of,  258  ; 

for  working-men,  285  ;    functional  treatment  by  means  of,  306. 
Appliances  for  physical  training,  146,  et  seq. 
Apprentice,  the  work  of  an,  126,  128  ;  his  relations  with  his  employer, 

185,  188,  et  seq. 
Apprenticeship  :    organisation  of,  8,   9,   128-133,   190,  et  seq.  ;    206, 

technique  of,  183,  193,  et  seq.  ;    schools  of,  186  ;    advantages  of 

the  latter,  192  ;    the  problem  of,  184  ;    indentures  of,  185  ;    to 

life,  177. 
Aptitudes  :  physical,  45  ;  professional,  46,  204,  328-9,  340  ;  individual, 

116  ;    psychical,    50  ;    general,    183,    194,   323 ;    of  the   French 

artisan,  207. 
Arabs  :    sponge-fishers,  88  ;    as  workers,  212,  225  ;    gait  of  the,  162  ; 

investigations  undertaken  among  by  author,  211,  218,  et  seq.  ; 

diet  of  the,  220  ;   wages  of,  225. 
Arbeitstherapie,  338. 
Arm,  experimental,  285  ;  Amar's  type,  286,  et  seq.  ;  Cauet's  type,  285, 

297,  et  seq.  ;    disarticulation  of  the,  289,  301. 
Art  of  manual  work,  125,  166  ;    of  thinking,  168  ;    of  speaking,  174  ; 

of  writing,  175  ;   of  teaching,  181  ;   definition  of,  192. 
Arterio-sclerosis,  the  cause  of,  44,  115. 
Artisan,  see  Worker. 
Arthrodynanometer,  156,  243. 
Articulations  :    surfaces  of,  30  ;   of  old  men,  44  ;   rigidity  of  the,  120, 

145  ;   supplementary  action  of,  145  ;   the  principal,  259. 
Assistance  and  relief,  228,  311,  351-2  ;    for  victims  of  the  war,  229, 

312,  352  ;  relief  work,  352  ;  the  proper  province  of,  230. 
Asthenopia,  ocular,  93. 
Athlete  :   athlete's  heart,  30,  82  ;  the  pulse  of  an,  79,  82  ;  the  muscles, 

46  ;    the  physical  training,  64,  160. 
Attention  :   fatigue  caused  by,  11,  180  ;   disorders  of  the,  116  ;  genesis 

of  the,  42,  55  ;   the  function  of  the,  178. 
Attitudes  of  the  body,  38,  72,  122,  127,  161  ;   of  the  cyclist,  136. 


Balland,    A.,  109. 
Barbe,  189. 

Beat  of  the  heart,  29,  80. 
Beaufort,   Comte  de,  284. 
Beetle,  pneumatic,  343. 
Beignet,   A.,  185. 
Belidor,  4. 


INDEX  361 

Belot,  Dr.,  309. 

Benedict,  13,  135,  171. 

Berbers,  the,  212,  215,  220. 

Bernard,   Claude,  23. 

Bernouilli  brothers,  the,  3  ;    Jacques,  61. 

Beverages,  112  ;   alcoholic,  113-4,  222  ;   of  the  Arabs,  222. 

Bicycle  bearings,  sorting,  11. 

Bile,  the,  21. 

Blood,  function  of  the,  25  ;   movement  of  the,  29. 

Body,  the  :    development  and  endurance  of,  40  ;    form,  46  ;    weight, 

40,  106  ;    proportions,  260. 
Bouchard,  96. 
Bourgeois,  Leon,  201. 
Bourrey,   G.,  188. 
Boussingault,  221. 
Bracelet,  weighted,  249,  354. 
Brain,  the,  34  ;   cortex  of  the,  37,  42  ;   differences  observed  in,  42  ; 

atrophy  of,  44  ;  localisations  in,  50  ;  functions  of,  51  ;  the  frontal 

lobe  of,  51  ;   radio-activity  of,  172. 
Breathlessness,  87,  322. 
Bricklayer,  the  work  of  the,  123. 
Broca's  centre,  53. 
Brodmann,  52. 
Brown- Sequard,  25. 
Brunei,  Deputy,  338. 
Bulb,  dynamographic,  154. 
Bulimia,  105. 


C 

Cabrini,  Deputy,  204. 

Calorie,  definition  of,  13. 

Calorimetric  chamber,  13. 

Carbohydrates,  necessary  minimum  of,  104,  106  ;   sources  of,  103. 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas,  see  Acid. 

Cardiograph,  78. 

Cards  of  instruction  in  Taylor  system,  6. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  13. 

Carpenter,  the  work  of  the,  130,  132. 

Carriage  of  the  body,  160-1. 

Cauet's  artificial  arms,  288,  et  seq. 

Cazalis,  44. 

Centre  of  gravity,  3,  165,  262  ;   its  oscillations,  162  ;   of  the  fore-arm, 

242. 

Cerebellum,  the,  34,  37,  48. 
Certificate  of  qualifications,  328-9,  331,  341. 
Chambers,  syndical,  349. 

Chauveau,  12,  99-101,  116  ;    his  Laws,  99-101. 
Child,  the,  41  ;    sensibility  of  the,  41  ;  labour  to  be  forbidden  the,  62, 

117,  growth  of  the,  104,  111  ;  diet  of  the,  111  ;  education  and 

training  of  the,  180  ;   see  Education,  Training. 
Cheirograph,  the,  91,  151. 
Chittenden,  107. 


362 


INDEX 


Chopart's  amputation,  284. 

Chronometrical  measurements,  7. 

Chyle,  the,  22. 

Cinematograph,  the,  72,  130,  195. 

Circulatory  system,  the,  25  ;   fatigue  and  the,  77. 

Cirrhosis,  114. 

Clemenceau,  G.,  226. 

Climate,  the,  5  ;    hot  climates,  119  ;    cold  climates,  119  ;    effects  of 

climate,  210. 

Clothing,  tightness  of,  24  ;   nature  of,  121  ;   of  the  Arabs,  223. 
Coefficient,  the  thoracic,  45,  216  ;   the  morphological,  46. 
Colonisation,  209,  213,  216. 
Consciousness,  function  of  the,  38. 
Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  1,  201,  340. 
Contraction,  muscular,  see  Muscles. 
Contracts  of  apprenticeship,  185  ;   of  labour,  205. 
Contracture,  93,  140,  169. 
Co-ordination,  disorders  of,  151. 
Cornaro,  Luigi,  112. 
Corporations,  183,  184. 
Corsets,  24. 
Coulomb,  4,  7,  10,  210. 
Couscous,  109,  221. 
Cramp,  writer's,  93. 
Creoles,  224. 

Culture,  physical,  17,  146. 

Cycle,  the  ergometric,  78,  84,  85,  86,  87,  136,  147,  219. 
Cycling,  professional,  136. 
Cyclography,  73. 


I) 


D'Arsonval,  25. 

Dastre,  45. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphrey,  56. 

De  Camus,  3. 

Degeneration,  organic,  114-5. 

Delbet,  P.,  44. 

Desault,  58. 

Descartes,   176. 

Diabetic  patients,  weakness  of,  117. 

Diaphragm,  the,  18,  24. 

Diderot,  169. 

Dietetics,  112. 

Digestion,  18,  et  seq. 

Digits,  see  Fingers. 

Dime  royale,  the,  3,  4. 

Dreams,  origin  of,  169. 

Dubief,  186,  188. 

Duchenne  de  Boulogne,  309. 

Dupin,  Ch.,  7. 

Duralumin,  263,  270,  282. 

Dyspnoea,  25,  322. 


INDEX  363 

E 

Earthworks,  road-making,  etc.,  3,  343. 

Economy  :  law  of,  7  ;  of  time,  8,  196  ;  of  force,  166  ;  of  thought,  176  ; 
of  words,  178. 

Education,  of  the  nerves,  38  ;  of  the  senses,  41,  117-8,  248,  253  ; 
physical,  46,  66,  125,  140-3  ;  of  the  will,  56  ;  social,  60  ;  of  the 
movements,  70, 194,  318  ;  alimentary,  107  ;  intellectual,  176, 191  ; 
of  the  muscular  efforts,  312  ;  physiological,  322  ;  of  the  sensi- 
bility of  amputation  stumps,  248,  304,  354,  et  seq.  ;  see  Technical 
Education. 

Effort,  static,  34,  64  ;  duration  of,  94  ;  and  respiration,  89  ;  the 
sense  of,  132  ;  psychical,  180. 

Embolisms,  120. 

Emotions,  the  :  of  pleasure,  56, 170  ;  of  pain,  56,  57, 170  ;  expressions 
of  the,  170. 

Employment  of  war-cripples,  228,  350,  et  seq.  ;   charitable,  356-7. 

Endurance,  94-5  ;    curves  of,  95. 

Energetics,  14,  126. 

Energy,  the  expenditure  of,  12,  14,  73  ;  vital  energy,  16  ;  nervous 
energy,  39,  55  ;  psychic  energy,  43  ;  neuro-muscular  energy,  90  ; 
energetic  value  of  foods,  103  ;  minimum  expenditure  of  the  body, 
107  ;  calorific,  107  ;  human  energy,  358  ;  its  variations,  142  ; 
intellectual  energy,  169  ;  its  source,  173  ;  energy  of  rotation,  262. 

Ennui,  59. 

Environment,  the  physical,  55, 118,  et  seq. ;  the  social,  55,  60,  177,  209. 

Equation,  the  personal,  53,  54,  93,  158,  219,  322. 

Equipment,  mechanical,  see  Plant. 

Eudiometer,  74. 

Euler,  3. 

Exercises,  military,  99  ;   mental,  108,  116  ;   of  speed,  116,  154. 


Fatigue,  the  theory  of,  4,  11,  57  ;  effects  of,  76,  et  seq.  ;  static  fatigue, 
89  ;  pathological  fatigue,  116  ;  illustrated  in  case  of  artisan  filing 
metal,  128  ;  measured  by  bulb  dynamometer,  155  ;  due  to  bad 
positions  of  the  body,  160  ;  nature  of,  77,  95,  166  ;  cerebral,  171, 
180  ;  fatigue  of  attention,  174  ;  of  war-cripples,  313. 

Fashion,  the,  and  hygiene,  24,  162. 

Fechner's  Law,  61. 

Feminism,  43. 

File,  efforts  brought  to  bear  upon  a,  67  ;  the  dynamographic,  69  ; 
work  done  in  filing  metal,  128. 

Fletcher,  Horace,  106-7. 

Fletcherism,  107. 

Fleury,  de,  41. 

Force,  exertion,  of,  30  ;  psychical,  38  ;  muscular,  of  the  limbs,  145-6  ; 
muscular,  158  ;  vital,  2,  12. 

BB* 


364  INDEX 


Gait,  see  Walking. 
Galileo,  99. 
Gall,  50. 

Games,  influence  of,  in  fatigue,  57  ;  and  age,  142  ;   origin  of,  142. 
Gangway,  moving,  80  ;    dynamographic,  275-7. 
Gaujol  and  Spillmann,  309. 
Gilbreth,  F.,  8,  72,  123,  181,  202. 
Gilbreth,  Mrs.,  55. 
Glycogen,  22,  103,  114. 

Grip,  universal,  Amar's,  287,  288,  292,  295,  333. 
Guilds,  183,  184,  194. 

Gymnastics,   163,  165,   166  ;    masticatory,   107  ;    respiratory,  255. 
Gyrograph,  the,  159. 

li 

H  < 

Haemoglobin,  27,  121. 

Hammer,  the  dynamographic,  319  ;   blow  of  a,  320  ;   mathematics  of, 

321. 

Hansemann,  45. 
Handicrafts,  the  teaching  of,  as  an  integral  whole,  186  ;     in  the  past, 

186  ;   practice  and  love  of,  194  ;   selecting  a  new  craft,  231  ;   the 

choice  of  a  craft,  323,  344. 
Hearing,  118. 
Heart,  the  :    contraction  of,  27-8  ;    weight  of,  29,  99,    ;    rhythm  of, 

28,  80  ;    hypertrophy  of,  44  ;    disorders  of,    29,  56  ;    fatigue  of, 

80  ;    degeneration  of,  114  ;    affected  by  amputation,  255. 
Heat  of  the  body,  104  ;   damp  heat,  25,  121,  210. 
Hegemony,  Functional,  the  Law  of,  31,  143. 
Helmholtz,  14. 

Heredity,  intellectual,  55,  204  ;  moral,  62  ;  physiological,  62,  117,  216. 
Him,  14. 
Hugede,  284. 
Humidity,  25. 
Hygiene  and  physical  education,  140  ;    industrial  hygiene,  194,  208  ; 

social,  116,  121-2. 


Inanition,  mineral,  33  ;    alimentary,  104. 

Incapacity,  industrial :    estimation  of,  312  ;    simulation  of,  313. 

Infirm,  soldiers,  133,  227  ;  re-education  of,  138,  140,  143,  231,  et  seq.  ; 

re-apprenticeship  of,  183  ;    work  of,  313. 
Inhibition,  38,  50,  58  ;    of  fatigue,  97,  170. 
Intellect,  the,  38,  42-3,  55,  52,  57  ;    education  of,  141,  168,  171,  174, 

191  ;    of  negroes,  216  ;    professional,  323. 
Intestines,  the,  18,  20. 

Intoxication  of  fatigue,  the,  77,  93,  106,  170,  174. 
Italians,  as  workers,  204. 


INDEX  365 

J 

James,  William,  61. 

Jerky  movements,  due  to  clumsiness,  70,  72,  130  ;    disadvantage  of, 

in  mechanotherapy,  139. 
Jointing-plane,  the  registering,  69  ;    training  by  means  of  the,  320  ; 

work  done  with  the,  131. 
Joy,  56,  170. 

K 

Kabyles,  the,  203  ;  as  workers,  211,  214-5  ;  history  of,  212-3  ;  life  of, 
215  ;  anthropological  characteristics  of,  214  ;  a  source  of  labour, 
218. 

Kenotoxins,  25. 

Kilogram-metre,  the,  13,  135. 

Kirschhoffer,  47. 

Knudsen,   Hans,  228. 

Kyrie,  114. 


Labour,  the  science  of,  2  ;  unit  of,  135  ;  maximum  of,  3,  128  ;  super- 
vision of,  4  ;  on  piecework,  4,  7  ;  rest  during,  4,  101,  121,  128  : 
Taylor's  organisation  of,  5,  et  seq.  ;  muscular  exertion,  in,  64  ; 
laws  of,  99,  et  seq.  ;  factors  of  human,  98,  103,  et  seq.  ;  profes- 
sional, 125,  et  seq.  ;  agricultural,  137,  192  ;  intellectual,  168, 
et  seq.  ;  mental,  177  ;  law  of  the  division  of,  185,  198,  207  ;  the 
right  to,  226  ;  incapacity  to  perform,  313  ;  of  war-cripples,  311, 
et  seq. 

Law,  of  functional  hegemony,  31,  143  ;  Fechner's,  61  ;  Chauveau, 
103,  139  ;  Amar's,  101  ;  of  repose,  101  ;  Schwann's,  139,  159  ; 
of  rhythm,  181  ;  Chapelier's,  184  ;  of  1851,  186. 

Labbe,  189. 

Lachaud,  165. 

Landouzy,  116. 

Laplace,  61. 

Laurent,  284. 

Lavoisier,  14-16. 

La  Hire,  3,  10. 

Le  Chatelier,  H.,  5. 

Leg,  wooden,  rigid,  264-5  ;  with  locking-joint,  265  ;  artificial  legs,  272  ; 
et  seq. 

Lemonade,  vinous,  222. 

Lennander,  59,  77. 

Lian,   C.,  115. 

Liebaut,  193. 

Limbs,  orientation  of  the,  65  ;  strength  and  compass  of  the,  147  ; 
education  of  the,  146  ;  phantom  limb,  illusion  of  the,  250  ;  utilisa- 
tion of  stumps,  259. 

Localisations,  cerebral,  51. 

Locomotion,  162. 

Lombard,  59. 

Longevity,  44,  111-12. 

Lussana,  115. 

Luzzati,  205. 


366  INDEX 

M 

Machine,  the  human,  1,  342  ;   machine  tools,  123,  326,  342. 

Marey,  66  ;   his  drum  or  tambour,  67. 

Marie,  51. 

Marinesco,  51. 

Marking  time,  134. 

Material,  employed  in  orthopaedics,  263. 

Meals,  hours  of,  142-3. 

Mechanisation  of  industry,  185,  206,  342. 

Mechanotherapy,  139,  143,  146. 

Memory,  38,  179  ;   organic,  39. 

Menopause,  the,  41. 

Messimy,  M.,  his  scheme  of  native  conscription,  211. 

Method,  2,  5,  9  ;  physical,  2,  9  ;  physiological,  12,  et  seq.  ;  in  the 
observation  of  labourers,  4,  6  ;  graphic,  the,  66,  194;  see  Order. 

Metronome,  the,  92,  150. 

Metschnikov,  20,  105. 

Millerand,  186. 

Mobius,  42,  63. 

Moment  of  a  force,  the,  159  ;   of  inertia,  263. 

Montaigne,  167,  176,  181. 

Montesquieu,  99. 

Moral  character,  63  ;  moral  equality  of  the  sexes,  63  ;  moral  dejection, 
256,  323  ;  moral  condition  of  the  blind,  355. 

Mosso,   A.,  77,  120,  151. 

Motor,  the  motive  portion  of  a  machine,  11  ;  the  muscles  as  motors, 
33  ;  the  utility  of  small  motors,  137,  324,  342  ;  in  agriculture, 
342. 

Movement,  human,  30  ;  automatic,  30  ;  useful,  7,  166  ;  useless,  7, 
66,  166  ;  voluntary,  55,  70  ;  in  the  child,  53  ;  the  education  of, 
66,  194  ;  the  forms  of,  143  ;  force  and  amplitude  of,  145  ;  of  the 
stumps,  259,  et  seq. 

Mozabites,  the,  214. 

Mutilations  (of  the  fingers),  261,  331. 

Mutilated  workers,  46,  66,  122,  123,  241  ;  movements  of,  146  ;  sus- 
ceptible of  training,  230,  351  ;  the  total  number  of,  351. 


N 

Navvy's  work,  4,  343. 

Negroes,  the  brain  of,  43,  52  ;   the  pigmentation  of,  216. 

Neurasthenia,  116. 

Neurones,  sensory,  36  ;   motor,  36  ;   nature  of  the,  36  ;   inhibitory,  38, 

50  ;    of  association,  38  ;    function  of  the,  in  thought,  169,  178. 
Nerve-centres,  resistance  of  the  fatigue,  93. 

Newton,  99,  101  ;   his  Law,  176. 

Nicati,  61. 

O 

Obesity,  34,  106,  107. 
Oesophagus,  18,  105. 
Office,  technical,  in  industrial  schools,  341,  347. 


INDEX  367 

Order,  5,  9,  102,  166  ;   of  ideas,  17,  175,  177  ;   habits  of,  196. 
Organisation,   scientific,   6,   124,   326,   336,   338  ;    methods  of,   338  ; 

regional,  340  :    Institute  of  the  Scientific  Organisation  of  Labour, 

350  ;    of  society,  358. 
Orientation  :   industrial  and  professional,  184,  312,  323,  324,  347,  348  ; 

of  the  arms,  314,  336. 

Orthopaedics,  47,  231  ;    the  principles  of,  237,  et  seq.  ;    materials  em- 
ployed in,  263  ;    Commission  of  Orthopaedic  Specifications,  265  ; 

physiological  application  of,  306. 
Oscillometer,  Pachon's,  78. 
Osteomalacia,  infatile,  33. 
Osteopsathyrosis,  32. 
Ostwald,  192. 
Ottolenghi,  213. 
Output,  development  of  the,  66  ;  during  fatigue,  87  ;  the  economic,  127  ; 

the  maximum,  128  ;    the  agricultural,  137  ;    the  industrial,  197  ; 

of    prothetic    appliances,   259,   331  ;    diminution    of,   331  ;    the 

normal  social,  352. 
Oxygen,  12,  23,  24,  27,  75,  95. 


P. 

Pace,  see  Speed. 

Pancreas,  20,  21. 

Paralysis  :    due  to  crutches,  233  ;   radial,  307,  et  seq. 

Pare,  Ambroise,  57,  265,  284. 

Pavloff,  23,  104. 

Pensions,  military,  313. 

Peristalsis,  20. 

Peritoneum,  the,  20. 

Personal  equation,  the,  53,  93,  150,  219,  322. 

Phenomenon  :    of  referred  sensation,  248  ;    Weir-Mitchell's,  250. 

Placing,  industrial,  of  war-cripples,  228,  231,  348,  et  seq.  ;  in  charitable 

employment,  351. 
Plane,  see  Jointing-plane. 
Plane,  the  aesthesiographic,  354. 
Plant,  of  workshops,  equipment,  etc.  ;    organisation  of,  6,  122,  197  ; 

adapted  to  war-cripples,  122,  324,  326  ;  in  charitable  employment, 

326,  356. 

Pneumograph,  the,  83. 
Poncelet,  2. 

Power  :    calorific,  109-110  ;   of  amputation  stumps,  242. 
Pressure  :   arterial,  78,  81,  115,  121  ;   atmospheric,  120  ;   of  the  hand, 

154. 

Privat,  Dr.,  309. 

Professional  malformations,  46,  47  ;   fatigue,  116  ;   intoxications,  117. 
Prothesis  :   for  victims  of  amputation,  66,  146,  241,  et  seq.  ;   scientific 

(principles  of),  257,  et  seq.  ;   mechanical,  262  ;    of  the  lower  limb, 

264  ;  of  the  upper  limb,  284  ;  testing  of  prothetic  appliances,  275  ; 

functional,  306  ;   percentage  output  of  prothetic  appliances,  331  ; 

defective,  335  ;  in  cases  of  double  amputations,  352  ;  of  the  blind, 

354  ;    Commission  of  Prothetic  Specifications,  265. 
Pseudarthrosis,  308. 


368  INDEX 

Psychical  aptitude,  50  ;  activity,  169  ;  condition  of  war-cripples,  256 
Psycho-physiology,  39,  40,  56  ;   law  of,  60  ;    of  the  worker,  194,  200  ; 

of  the  war-cripple,  229. 

Pulse,  29  ;   tracings  of  the,  78  ;   in  dreams,  169. 
Punch,  perforating,  for  tickets,  324. 


R. 

Radio-activity,  172. 

Radiochronophotography,  21. 

Radioscopy  of  the  heart,  80. 

Rameil,  Pierre,  338. 

Rations,  alimentary,  76,  106  ;    table  of,  109. 

Re-adaptation,  industrial,  230,  240,  310,  324,  331,  336  ;  sensitive,  of 
the  stumps,  247,  354  ;  of  blind  war-cripples,  354,  et  seq. 

Re-apprenticeship  of  the  wounded,  184,  196,  230,  331. 

Re-education,  functional,  129,  138  ;  general  laws  of,  143,  et  seq.  ;  tech- 
nique and  results  of,  231,  et  seq.  ;  cellular,  224  ;  organic,  252  ; 
professional,  146,  228,  311,  et  seq.  ;  of  the  stumps,  149,  241,  et 
seq.  ;  centres  of  the  organisation,  of,  341  ;  duration  of  profes- 
sional, 347. 

Reflexes,  nervous  ;  the  reflex  arc,  36,  37  ;  control  of,  52  ;  duration 
of,  54  ;  effects  of  alcohol  on  the,  115  ;  of  expression,  169. 

Regimen,  alimentary,  111  ;    of  schools  of  re-education,  347. 

Rekkas  (Arab  runners),  47. 

Resistance  of  the  human  body,  40  ;    organic,  40,  94,  141. 

Rest :  frequency  of  intervals  of,  4,  102  ;  physiological,  96  ;  the  law 
of,  101  ;  of  workers,  122  ;  daily  hours  of,  122  ;  in  the  case  of  a 
metal-worker  (filing),  128  ;  physical,  160. 

Respiration,  23  ;  in  old  people,  44  ;  during  fatigue,  82  ;  pathological, 
255  ;  mask  for  measurement  of,  14  ;  analysis  of,  75. 

Respiration  gauge,  74. 

Rhetoric,  the  object  of,  179. 

Richet,  Ch.,  59,  119. 

Rickets,  33. 

Right-handed  persons,  frequency  of,  144,  318. 

Robin,   A.,  116. 


S. 

Schopper,  114. 

Schivann,  139,  159. 

Science,  the  function  of,  193,  198,  326  ;    social,  200. 

Scoliosis,  239  ;    scholar's  stoop,  118. 

Secretions,  psychical  control  of  the,  21,  104  ;    their  inhibition,  171. 

Seguin,  14-16. 

Selection  :    as  taught  by  Taylor,  7  ;    social,  62  ;    of  movements,  1C6  ~ 

of  workers,  206. 
Senility,  41,  44,  et  seq.  ;    causes  of,  44  ;   measures  preventive  of,  112  ; 

diminished  energy  of,  142. 


INDEX  369 

Sensations  :  organic,  34,  59,  77  ;  tactile,  34,  248  ;  visual,  34  ;  gusta- 
tory, 35  ;  olfactory,  34  ;  auditory,  35  ;  law  of,  60  ;  of  fatigue, 
76  ;  of  thirst,  113. 

Senses,  the,  34,  37;  of  the  child,  41;  education  of,  41,  61,  253; 
condition  of,  107,  122,  253  ;  function  of,  in  dreams,  169. 

Sensibility,  of  women,  42  ;  of  the  child,  41  ;  relations  between — and 
intelligence,  55  ;  disorders  of,  93,  248,  250  ;  tactile,  93  ;  definition 
of,  169  ;  of  amputation  stumps,  248,  250. 

Shakespeare,  39. 

Shovel,  see  Spade. 

Signal,  Deprez,  54,  151. 

Sigaud,  49. 

Sight,  the  sense  of,  31,  118,  254  ;   fatigue  of  the,  92,  170. 

Simulation,  in  war-cripples,  313. 

Skeleton,  the,  32  ;  morbid  fragility  of,  32,  44  ;  modified  by  amputa- 
tion, 247. 

Skin,  pigmentation  of  the,  216. 

Sleep,  the  toxins  of,  97. 

Sobriety  :    in  matters  of  diet,  107,  112  ;    of  old  people,  111. 

Sorting  balls  for  bearings,  11. 

Spade,  dynamographic,  71,  343,  356  ;    normal  weight  of  a,  137. 

Specifications,  Orthopaedic,  Commission  of,  265. 

Spectacular  entertainments,  122,  181. 

Speed,  and  fatigue,  88  ;  the  economic,  101,  et  seq.  ;  work  demanding, 
116,  154  ;  of  thought,  180  ;  of  labour,  219. 

Sphygmograph,  Marey's,  78. 

Spillmann,   Gaujot  and,  309. 

Splint,  for  amputation  stumps,  149, 150, 243, 245, 249 ;  for  paralysis,  308. 

Sponge-divers,  Arab,  88. 

Sports,  66, 163  ;  diet  and,  105  ;  cycling,  136  ;  a  luxury,  138  ;  hygienic 
value  of,  141  ;  movements,  made  in  various,  160. 

Stairs,  carrying  weights  up,  135. 

Steel,  quality  of  employed  in  orthopaedics,  264. 

Starvation,  mineral,  33  ;   alimentary,  105. 

Stenon,  Bishop,  experiments  on  dog,  30. 

Step,  disadvantages  of  a  short,  93,  162  ;  phases  of  the,  in  walking, 
265,  273. 

Stiff  neck,  rheumatic,  93. 

Stomach,  18. 

Strength,  exertion,  of,  30  ;  of  the  limbs,  147  ;  muscular,  156  ;  of 
Arabs,  218-220  ;  of  the  stumps,  245. 

Strikes,  207,  226. 

Suckling  of  children,  111. 

Sweat,  toxins  in,  96. 


Tachyphagia,  22,  108. 

Taylor,  F.  W.,  5  ;    his  system,  6,  et  seq.  ;    181  ;    his  insistence  upon 

speed,  101  ;    results  obtained  by,  134  ;    his  education,  191  ;    on 

life  in  the  workshop,  201. 
Tea,  222. 

Teaching,  see  Education. 
Technical  education,  186  ;    general  or  special,  186,  et  seq.  ;    199. 


370  INDEX 

Technique  of  apprenticeship,  194  ;   of  physical  training,  146. 
Temperature  of  the  body,  14  ;   of  the  atmosphere  (climatic),  120  ;   of 

workshops,  etc.,  119. 
Tendon,  34  ;  of  Achilles,  34. 
Thirst,  113  ;  how  to  quench,  113,  222. 
Thooris,  48,  50. 
Thumb,  the,  mutilations  of,  262,  331  ;    functions  of,  262  ;    artificial, 

262. 

Tiegerstedt,  R.,  107. 

Time,  registration  of,  70,  72  ;    of  nervous  reaction,  53,  150. 
Tonicity  of  the  organs,  31,  57  ;   of  the  muscles,  57,  58,  97,  115. 
Tonograms  of  respiration,  83,  102. 
Tool  or  instrument,  as  part  of  a  machine,  11  ;   good  output  of  a,  123  ; 

choice  of,  122,  197,  326. 
Touch,  the  sense  of,  31  ;    and  pain,  59  ;    and  fatigue,  93  ;    in  the 

blind,  118,  248,  354. 
Toys,  wooden,  343. 
Training  of  the  child,  175. 

Transportation  of  burdens,  8,  133-4,  et  seq.  ;   218. 
Trade,  see  Handicraft. 
Tuberculosis,  predisposition  to,  40,  115. 
Tuffier,   Th.,  233,  234. 
Types,  of  humanity,  47-50  ;  of  movement,  144  ;  of  grips  or  holders  for 

artificial  arms,  in  place  of  hands,  288-9,  295-6. 


U 


Urine,  96  ;   toxicity  of  the,  96. 
Use  of  artificial  arms,  302,  et  seq. 


Valve,  two-way,  for  measuring  respiration,  73,  83,  126. 

Vauban,  3. 

Ventilation,  pulmonary,  24,  75  ;   curve  of,  88. 

Verne,  H.,  2. 

Viviarii,  R.,  225,  228. 

Vocation,  importance  of,  10,  184,  322. 

Voltaire,  172,  191. 


W 

War-cripples,  the  work  of,  30,  129  ;  endurance  of,  117,  241  ;  re- 
education of,  166,  230,  et  seq.  ;  definition  of  the  term,  227  ;  em- 
ployment of,  228,  350 ;  certificate  of  qualifications  of,  328 ; 
seriously  disabled,  351. 

Wages,  the  law  of,  206  ;    depreciation  of,  207  ;    of  the  Arabs,  225. 

Waistcoats,  prothetic,  290. 


INDEX 


371 


Walking,  30,  135,  et  seq.  ;  with  Hexed  knees,  162  ;  theory  of,  273  ; 
of  atheletes,  46  ;  of  one-legged  men,  260,  275-8. 

Water,  23,  113,  119,  222. 

Weber,  Ed.,  his  Law,  61  ;    his  aesthesiometer,  248. 

Weichardt,  25. 

Weir- Mitchell,  230-1. 

Wheelbarrow,  how  to  hold  a,  100,  137  ;   with  two  wheels,  137. 

Woman,  physical  qualities  of,  41  ;  intelligence  of,  42  ;  labour  of,  117, 
208. 

Workmen,  qualities  of,  1,  7,  127,  150,  196  ;  the  educated,  193,  194, 
206  ;  the  methods  of  good,  199,  200  ;  probationers,  200  ;  con- 
sideration of,  201  ;  Italian,  204  ;  French,  207  ;  Arab,  211  ; 
rarity  of  good,  204  ;  the  home  worker,  347. 

Workshops,  for  apprenticeship,  193,  199,  338,  341,  347  ;  or  industrial 
school,  186  ;  the  organisation  of,  193  ;  the  function  of  small,  200  ; 
benefits  of  a  return  to  the,  200  ;  hours  of  work  in,  204  ;  special, 
356-7. 

Wounded  soldiers,  see  War-cripples. 

Wood,  in  orthopaedics,  263,  275  ;    multiple-ply,  263. 


X-Rays,  21. 


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